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HomeMy WebLinkAboutTransportation Plan Volume 3 Design Guidelines The Town of IthacaThe Town of IthacaThe Town of IthacaThe Town of Ithaca Transportation PlanTransportation PlanTransportation PlanTransportation Plan Volume III:Volume III:Volume III:Volume III: The Design GuidelinesThe Design GuidelinesThe Design GuidelinesThe Design Guidelines Version: July 9, 2007 Town of Ithaca Town Board Contact: jkanter@town.ithaca.ny.us IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1111 The Guiding VisionThe Guiding VisionThe Guiding VisionThe Guiding Vision............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1111 Multiple Modes ...............................................................................................................................2 Adjacent Land Uses........................................................................................................................2 Human-Scale Design......................................................................................................................2 Outdoor Rooms...............................................................................................................................3 Context Sensitive Design................................................................................................................3 The Importance of Design..............................................................................................................4 Streetscape DesignStreetscape DesignStreetscape DesignStreetscape Design............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5555 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6666 The Transportation Network and Adjacent Land UsesThe Transportation Network and Adjacent Land UsesThe Transportation Network and Adjacent Land UsesThe Transportation Network and Adjacent Land Uses ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................6666 Connectivity.....................................................................................................................................6 Connectivity and Walkability...........................................................................................................7 Intersections and Curb Radii..........................................................................................................8 Suburban Forms.............................................................................................................................8 Adjacent Sites and Structures........................................................................................................8 Neighborhood Commercial Development...................................................................................10 Parking..........................................................................................................................................10 Gateway Treatments....................................................................................................................11 Access Management...................................................................................................................11 The Road EdgeThe Road EdgeThe Road EdgeThe Road Edge ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12121212 Furniture and Amenities..............................................................................................................12 Transit...........................................................................................................................................12 Pedestrian Facilities ....................................................................................................................13 Road Edge Natural Landscape...................................................................................................13 The Roadway and ShoulderThe Roadway and ShoulderThe Roadway and ShoulderThe Roadway and Shoulder ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14141414 Roadway Width............................................................................................................................14 On-Street Parking.........................................................................................................................14 Other Design IssuesOther Design IssuesOther Design IssuesOther Design Issues........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15151515 Drainage and Stormwater Runoff...............................................................................................15 Operational Issues.......................................................................................................................15 Sample StreetscapesSample StreetscapesSample StreetscapesSample Streetscapes................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17171717 (A) Urban/ Suburban, Intense Traffic........................................................................................18 (B) Urban/ Suburban, Non-Intense Traffic................................................................................18 (C) Rural, Intense Traffic.............................................................................................................19 (D) Rural, Non-Intense Traffic ....................................................................................................19 Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure DesignBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure DesignBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure DesignBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design................................................................................................................................................................................................................20202020 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21212121 Pedestrian InfrastructurePedestrian InfrastructurePedestrian InfrastructurePedestrian Infrastructure........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................22222222 Types of Pedestrian Infrastructure.............................................................................................22 Sidewalks and Walkways.............................................................................................................22 Multi-use Paths.............................................................................................................................22 Paved Shoulders...........................................................................................................................23 ADA Access...................................................................................................................................23 Intersections, Crosswalks, and Traffic Signals..........................................................................24 Other Pedestrian Environment Enhancements.........................................................................24 Bicycle InfrastructureBicycle InfrastructureBicycle InfrastructureBicycle Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................25252525 Types of Bicycle Infrastructure ...................................................................................................25 Shared Lane .................................................................................................................................25 Wide Curb Lane............................................................................................................................26 Paved Shoulder ............................................................................................................................26 Bicycle Lane..................................................................................................................................27 Multi-Use Path ..............................................................................................................................28 Bicycle Parking.............................................................................................................................28 Suggested Number of Bicycle Parking Spaces per Land Use....................................................29 Bicycle Facility Best Practices.....................................................................................................30 How to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian FacilityHow to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian FacilityHow to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian FacilityHow to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian Facility ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................31313131 Site Plan Review ChecklistSite Plan Review ChecklistSite Plan Review ChecklistSite Plan Review Checklist................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................34343434 Traffic Calming DesignTraffic Calming DesignTraffic Calming DesignTraffic Calming Design................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................36363636 IntroIntroIntroIntroductionductionductionduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................37373737 Volume Control MeasuresVolume Control MeasuresVolume Control MeasuresVolume Control Measures....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................38383838 Partial Road/ Half-Street Closure...............................................................................................39 Bus, Bike, and Pedestrian-Only Access......................................................................................39 Cul-de-sac or Dead End (Full Road Closure)..............................................................................40 Diagonal Diverter.........................................................................................................................40 Channelization/ Forced-Turn Lane/ Turn Diverter....................................................................41 Median Barrier.............................................................................................................................41 VertVertVertVertical Speed Control Measuresical Speed Control Measuresical Speed Control Measuresical Speed Control Measures........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................42424242 Speed Hump.................................................................................................................................42 Speed Table .................................................................................................................................42 Raised Crosswalk.........................................................................................................................43 Raised Intersection......................................................................................................................43 Horizontal Speed Control MeasuresHorizontal Speed Control MeasuresHorizontal Speed Control MeasuresHorizontal Speed Control Measures ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................44444444 Neighborhood Traffic Circle/ Intersection Island ......................................................................44 Modern Roundabout ...................................................................................................................44 Chicane/ Serpentine Roadway...................................................................................................45 Neckout/ Bulbout/ Curb Extension............................................................................................45 Choker ..........................................................................................................................................46 Center Island/ Median ................................................................................................................46 Other MeasuresOther MeasuresOther MeasuresOther Measures....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47474747 Bike Lane......................................................................................................................................47 Pavement Treatments.................................................................................................................47 Other Strategies...........................................................................................................................48 Other Issues.................................................................................................................................49 Traffic Calming and Emergency Response................................................................................49 Design Issues...............................................................................................................................50 Maintenance & Longevity............................................................................................................50 Sources and CreditsSources and CreditsSources and CreditsSources and Credits ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................51515151 Photograph, Drawing, and Diagram Credits..............................................................................51 General Resources......................................................................................................................53 1 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction The purpose of this document is to guide Town of Ithaca decision-makers when designing Town roads or providing input into the design of non-Town roads. These guidelines are based on the Goals and Objectives of the Town of Ithaca Transportation Plan. The guidelines emphasize multi-modal streets that respect and protect the livability of residences adjacent to the street. Specifically, these guidelines seek to establish roadways that are: safe; secure, comfortable, and convenient for all users, including residents; universally accessible; environmentally-friendly; and engaging to the eye. This document deals with design guidelines, not design standards. Design standards specify precise design attributes. Design guidelines, on the other hand, are general considerations that guide, not dictate, the physical design of the streetscape. No document can prescribe enforceable standards for every development or redevelopment scenario, as each has different needs and priorities. Thus, the recommendations herein are strongly suggested, but not mandatory. These design guidelines are toolboxes of “best practices” that provide options for decision-makers. The Guiding VisionThe Guiding VisionThe Guiding VisionThe Guiding Vision Traditionally, roadways have been designed from a motorist’s point of view, and roadway design has sought to maximize motorists’ comfort, safety, convenience, and speed with little concern for other roadway users, residents of adjacent neighborhoods, or businesses. In order to accommodate traffic, roads have been designed for the largest vehicle expected to use the road (even if this “design vehicle” only appears a few times a month) accommodating peak hour traffic volumes at a point many years in the future. A roadway thus over-designed becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy, and the next time the roadway is redesigned, roadway designers would use the increased volumes and speeds to justify further widening, straightening, and flattening of the road. In contrast to this outdated design paradigm, the principles guiding this design manual are based on the Goals and Objectives of the Town of Ithaca Transportation Plan. The Goals and Objectives emphasize the need to support access and mobility for all roadway users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, the young and old, the disabled, and others, while protecting livability in areas adjacent to roadways. The Goals and Objectives also establish safety and protection of the natural environment as important guiding principles. Overall, these design guidelines take a holistic approach to streetscape design. Specific principles guiding this document include encouraging the use of multiple modes, protection of neighborhoods and respect for business districts, human-scale design, outdoor rooms, and context sensitive design. 2 Multiple ModesMultiple ModesMultiple ModesMultiple Modes Pedestrians and bicyclists are a vital component of the streetscape. Instead of designing a road network primarily for motor vehicles and then “accommodating” pedestrians, planners and decision-makers must consider non-motorized travel as an expected and integral use of the transportation network. Safety, particularly for non-motorized modes, must be an important consideration when designing transportation facilities. Crashes are more likely to injure or kill a bicyclist or pedestrian than a motorist. Non-motorized modes of transportation should use separate facilities from motorized modes for safety reasons when possible, although shared facilities may be appropriate in cases of low vehicular volumes or speeds, or extremely limited right-of-way. Proper design is only one piece of the bicyclist and pedestrian safety issue. Education (for motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians) and enforcement of applicable rules and laws are equally important components of keeping streets safe for everyone. This is known as the “Three E” approach to transportation, which includes elements of engineering, education, and enforcement. Adjacent Land UsesAdjacent Land UsesAdjacent Land UsesAdjacent Land Uses As previously noted, traditional roadway design has accommodated motorists at the expense of others. Unfortunately, some high volume and high-speed roadways travel through residential areas, which has a negative effect on livability. A lack of facilities for non-motorized modes discourages residents from walking or biking, which further erodes a sense of community and has negative effects on public health. Poorly designed business districts can force shoppers to drive, rather than walk, between stores. Businesses lose out on the interest and revenue created through foot traffic. Vast parking lots have negative environmental effects. In short, roadway design should promote safe, livable, and healthy communities by respecting neighborhood needs and community character. HumanHumanHumanHuman----Scale DesignScale DesignScale DesignScale Design On a major highway, road signs are enormous, lane widths are very wide and straight, and vehicles travel by quickly. This type of road is intimidating for bicyclists and pedestrians, while the corridor itself is boring to motorists. In contrast, traditional “Main Street, USA” design is at more of a pedestrian scale. Signs in the shops are the right size to be read by pedestrians and motorists, as the building setbacks are shorter. Vehicles travel slowly, allowing safe street crossings. Thus, it is important to design and build road corridors from a human perspective (which includes pedestrians, bicyclists, and residents) as well as motorists, instead of only from a vehiclular perspective. 3 Outdoor RoomsOutdoor RoomsOutdoor RoomsOutdoor Rooms Street trees, attention to pedestrian-scale detail, benches, and other aspects of streetscape design add to the positive atmosphere for residents and travelers. The feel of an “outdoor room,” delineated by the road and adjacent structures, encourages pedestrians and bicyclists to use the space. The feeling of enclosure can slow motor vehicle traffic by providing motorists with a way to gauge their speed—the speed of the passing trees, lamp posts, or other streetscape features. The street trees in the photograph to the right meet in a canopy over the walkway, creating a beautiful green “outdoor room.” Context Sensitive DesignContext Sensitive DesignContext Sensitive DesignContext Sensitive Design Context Sensitive Design (CSD) refers to flexible design patterns that are sensitive to safety, mobility, access, community, and environmental goals. Context sensitive design addresses all modes of travel— not only vehicular traffic—and asserts that aesthetics are an integral part of good design. CSD incorporates local experience into the design of new roads by using designs and dimensions that are consistent with area roads that are safe and “fit” their surroundings. For example, when reconstructing a roadway, context sensitive designs reflect local conditions to serve all roadway users (including bicyclists and pedestrians), instead of blindly applying standards without regard for the unique situation of the roadway. Instead of limiting reconstruction work to the travel lanes, context sensitive design considers ways to beautify the streetscape, to restore the roadway to a human scale, and to improve the character and livability of the neighborhoods through which the road passes. Finally, context sensitive design incorporates local experience into roadway design to address safety concerns by mirroring other local roads that have good safety records and that foster vibrant communities. 4 The Importance of DesignThe Importance of DesignThe Importance of DesignThe Importance of Design Above: In this example, the street trees and curvilinear design are visually interesting and will help calm traffic. Direct off-road pedestrian and bicyclist paths may be necessary because the road takes a meandering course. Above: This subdivision road is wide, flat, straight, bare, and boring. Pedestrians have to walk in the road where motorists are speeding. Below: Get out your rulers… believe it or not, the road footprint of both diagrams is the same. The bottom diagram’s road appears narrower because the colored pavement and striping of the bike lanes visually narrow the road. In addition, the street trees frame the road to create a pleasant “outdoor room.” The presence of pedestrians signals to motorists that the area is inhabited and caution is due. 5 Streetscape DesignStreetscape DesignStreetscape DesignStreetscape Design Best Practices ToolboxBest Practices ToolboxBest Practices ToolboxBest Practices Toolbox 6 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction This section of the design guidelines explores streetscape design. “Streetscape” refers to the elements of a road corridor. A road corridor includes everything between the façades of buildings facing the street (if any), including front yards, sidewalks or walkways, planting strips and furniture zones, road shoulders, and travel lanes. This section describes how elements of a streetscape are arranged and how they interact with each other. It is organized into five topics: the transportation network and adjacent land uses, the road edge, the roadway and shoulder, other design issues, and sample streetscapes. The Transportation Network andThe Transportation Network andThe Transportation Network andThe Transportation Network and Adjacent Land Uses Adjacent Land Uses Adjacent Land Uses Adjacent Land Uses This section describes patterns formed by the transportation network and its interactions with adjacent land uses. The transportation network includes roads, sidewalks, bikeways, off-road paths, and so on. Adjacent lands influence and are influenced by the transportation network via the type of land use and the layout of adjacent sites. ConnectivityConnectivityConnectivityConnectivity Good connectivity between streets provides a greater number of routes between destinations, diffusing the traffic burden across the area. Connectivity between streets also provides more direct routes (in number and magnitude) for non-motorized travel, reduces trip lengths, and limits out-of-direction travel. This encourages residents to bike or walk and improves emergency access. Ways to promote connectivity include: • Avoid cul-de-sacs. Cul-de-sacs are the epitome of anti-connectivity, as there is only one way in and one way out. A close (pronounced “cloze”) or a loop road provides the private feel of a cul- de-sac without sacrificing connectivity. A close is a “U”-shaped street; the center of the “U” is natural or landscaped open space. A larger close is known as a “loop road.” In both of these designs, emergency vehicles can enter from either end, unlike a cul-de-sac. • Encourage short blocks to disperse traffic. Parallel local streets, frequent intersections, and short blocks help to limit out-of-direction travel, thus reducing walking distances between destinations. Two-hundred fifty to six hundred feet is a good length for a block. • Consider curvilinear roads where straight roads have created speeding problems. Where a curvilinear road would greatly increase the out-of-direction travel for bicyclists or pedestrians, use off-road paths to link destinations. Do not allow curvilinear paths to substantially increase the travel time for non-motorized modes (see below). 7 • Creatively promote non-motorized connectivity where motorized connectivity is not practical. Where there must be a dead-end because of environmental or other concerns, a trail or pathway through the dead-end provides connectivity for non-motorized travel. The chances of a person walking or bicycling to their destination if they must take a circuitous route are less than if they have a direct route. In particular, pedestrians are known to stray from established walkways and crosswalks to take a more direct route, even if the direct route is unsafe or unpleasant. Connectivity and Walkability This example shows the effect that land use patterns have on connectivity. Choose a residence approximately ½ mile from the commercial center in each diagram. In which diagram would it be easier to walk from the residence to the commercial building? MDRMDRMDRMDR MDRMDRMDRMDR MRMRMRMR MRMRMRMR CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC Zoning Codes CC=community commercial MDR=medium-density residential MR=multiple residence ~1/2 mile The diagram of interconnecting streets on the left is more walkable, i.e. it is easier to walk to a commercial area from a residence ½ mile away. In the diagram on the right, the apartment-dwellers must walk out to a collector road to reach the entrance of the commercial building. Off-road trails can provide non-motorized connectivity where motorized connectivity is impossible or impractical. In the left diagram, an old access road converted to a trail limits out-of-direction travel. In the right diagram, a path through a meadow greatly reduces the trip. CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC MRMRMRMR MRMRMRMR MDRMDRMDRMDR MDRMDRMDRMDR Zoning Codes CC=community commercial MDR=medium-density residential MR=multiple residence ~1/2 mile MDRMDRMDRMDR MDRMDRMDRMDR MRMRMRMR MRMRMRMR CCCCCCCC CCCCCCCC Zoning Codes CC=community commercial MDR=medium-density residential MR=multiple residence ~1/2 mile 8 Intersections and Curb RadiiIntersections and Curb RadiiIntersections and Curb RadiiIntersections and Curb Radii In general, curb radii should be as small as possible to shorten pedestrian crossing distances, to slow vehicles, and to prevent vehicles from rolling through stop controls. Five to fifteen feet in a subdivision is appropriate. Emergency vehicle access should be considered when choosing the curb radii at an intersection. If few large vehicles use an intersection, it may be acceptable to allow them to swing across the centerline when they make a right turn. On Cornell University’s campus, TCAT buses turning right often allow vehicles to the right to pass through the intersection, which then provides space for the bus to clear the curb. A design feature that allows large vehicles to make right turns without crossing the centerline is a low, mountable curb, which allows the vehicle to “hop” the curb to make the turn. This may cause conflicts with pedestrian safety if the sidewalk or walkway is directly adjacent to the curb. Traffic calming measures, such as curb extensions, raised crosswalks, raised intersections, or gateway treatments, can improve pedestrian safety at intersections and reduce vehicle speeds. The third section of these Design Guidelines discusses traffic calming. SuburbSuburbSuburbSuburban Formsan Formsan Formsan Forms Planners and developers can integrate aspects of urban design into a suburban transportation system. Street patterns and intersection spacing, pedestrian and bicyclist linkages, building heights and setbacks, building density, and land use mixes all influence the transportation system. The elements of the transportation network should be planned around one quarter to one third mile segments. This is the commonly accepted distance that the average person will walk for transportation without considering driving as an alternative. Cluster subdivisions and development nodes are two transportation-friendly design concepts that increase density. Cluster subdivisions are subdivisions in which large areas of the tract are set aside as open space and development is concentrated in other areas. It is easier to provide transit to clustered developments, because fewer stops are needed to serve the development. Development nodes should have a higher-density mix of land uses, including neighborhood commercial uses or service providers. This helps to make neighborhoods walkable by reducing the distances between destinations. Other transportation-friendly design concepts include neo-traditional design, transit-oriented development, and New Urbanism. Adjacent Sites and Structures Adjacent buildings are a part of the streetscape. Reducing setbacks to fifteen to twenty-five feet and improving direct pedestrian access creates a human scale and makes walking or biking more pleasant. 9 To promote walkability in both residential and commercial development, buildings and their entrances should be oriented toward the street, pedestrian facilities, and transit stops, instead of motor vehicle parking lots. The goal should be to encourage people to walk between locations, instead of getting into their cars to drive from store to store or apartment to office. Buildings should be arranged on the site so as to minimize walking distances between building entrances. Where possible, there should be direct access from transit stops to building entrances. The façade of the building should be visually interesting and pleasing; in other words, do not permit long, blank, windowless stretches of wall to face the street or the pedestrian walkway. Barrier-free, continuous, clearly delineated walkways or sidewalks should connect parking areas to building entrances, building entrances to other building entrances on the site, and building entrances to other building entrances on adjacent sites. If possible, the walkways between buildings should be covered with an awning, building overhang, portico, or other covering. Conflict points between sidewalks or walkways and the motor vehicle stream should be minimized and should be marked, where appropriate, with signage or crosswalks. In the diagram below, the ratio of the height of the adjacent buildings to the total road corridor is 1:10. Covering the long distance from the front door of the home to the sidewalk is inconvenient and intimidating. The pedestrian is lost in the vast distance between the houses. The diagram below approximates the dimensions for medium density residential development stipulated in the Town of Ithaca zoning code. In this diagram, the ratio of the height of the homes to the total road corridor is 1:4. While this is acceptable, a ratio of 1:3 or even 1:2 is recommended to preserve human scale and to make walking between distances easier. 155 feet 155 feet 50 feet 1:101:101:101:10 Building Height to Corridor Width Building Height to Corridor Width Building Height to Corridor Width Building Height to Corridor Width 36 ft tall home; 155 ft setback (sidewalk edge to home) 9 ft lane; 4 ft shoulder; 7 ft planting strip; 5 ft sidewalk 26 feet total pavement 50 ft total r-o-w 36 feet Person, 5.5 ft tall Passenger car 20 ft 40 ft 5 ft 10 ft Approximate Measures 10 Landscaped pedestrian refuges Building fronts sidewalk, not parking lot In the diagram below, this New Urbanist-style development has a building height to road corridor width ratio of 1:2.5. Note how the scale fits the pedestrian while still accommodating motor vehicles. Walking between destinations is very convenient. Neighborhood commercial land uses are integrated into the residential development. The high density of development may be inappropriate for certain locations, such as environmentally sensitive areas. This type of development may be similar to the Town’s high density residential development, except the Town zoning code requires a front yard depth of at least 25 feet and does not permit commercial uses by right. Neighborhood Commercial Development Neighborhood commercial zoning decreases travel distances between homes, stores, and services and encourages walking and bicycling via human-scale development. In the Ithaca area, the majority of vehicular trips per person per day are five miles or less (2.12 trips per person per day are less than five miles; 1.25 trips per person per day are greater than 5 miles). Short trips are more likely to transition to an alternate mode than long trips. For example, the average person is more likely to walk the half mile to a neighbor’s home than to walk five miles to a friend’s home on the other side of town. When designing a neighborhood commercial development, it is important to consider motor vehicle and bicycle parking (see below and the section on bicycle parking in the “Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices Toolbox”) and the considerations discussed above in the “Adjacent Sites and Structures” section. Parking The “sea of pavement” parking lot must be avoided. Massive parking lots are unattractive, increase polluted stormwater run-off, and are difficult for pedestrians and bicyclists to navigate. Parking lots should be sized to accommodate typical peak hour volumes, not the extraordinary volumes that occur a few times per year during the busiest shopping seasons. Commercial development with designs that actively encourage the use of alternate modes of transportation should be allowed to have fewer than the required number of parking spaces. Parking should be located to the side or rear of buildings. Buildings should be located close to the road to mitigate 22 feet 22 feet 46 feet 36 feet 20 ft 40 ft 5 ft 10 ft Approximate Measures 1111::::2222....5555 Building Height to Corridor Width (similar to New Building Height to Corridor Width (similar to New Building Height to Corridor Width (similar to New Building Height to Corridor Width (similar to New----Urbanist development)Urbanist development)Urbanist development)Urbanist development) 36 ft tall home; 22 ft setback (edge of ROW to home) 9 ft lane; 2 ft shoulder; 7 ft planting strip; 5 ft sidewalk 22 feet total pavement 11 the visual impact on the streetscape and to improve access for bicyclists and pedestrians. Shared parking lots between businesses should be encouraged, where appropriate, to reduce the overall need for parking. Large parking lots (greater than fifty spaces) should be broken up into distinct but connected lots, separated with landscaped medians with walkways. It is important to minimize the environmental and visual intrusion of motor vehicle parking. The use of porous and/ or light-colored pavement materials and the inclusion of generous green spaces reduces stormwater run-off. As many trees as possible should be included in the parking area (guidelines from other municipalities range from one tree per ten parking spaces to one tree per three parking spaces). Parking lot lights should be numerous, set close to the ground, and adequately shielded to prevent glare and light trespass. There should be clearly delineated pedestrian pathways, preferably on the aforementioned landscaped medians, that lead through parking areas to building entrances. Bicycle parking should be considered for every location that has motor vehicle parking (see the “Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices Toolbox” in these Design Guidelines). Compact vehicle parking spaces could be located closer to the entrance of a building to reward drivers who choose compact cars, to protect pedestrians by moving large vehicles away from the building entrance, and to enhance safety by improving visibility for drivers of compact cars who otherwise would park next to or between large vehicles. Gateway Treatments One way to announce to drivers that they are entering a residential area is to use a gateway treatment. These entrance features are often combinations of traffic calming, landscaping, sign, and architectural or art design features. Transition treatments can also mark the boundaries of significant changes in land use (such as a transition from agricultural to residential land uses). Access ManagementAccess ManagementAccess ManagementAccess Management Access management controls the number of curb cuts onto collector and arterial roads by using shared driveways between residences or businesses or by using local access roads or alleys to collect traffic and deposit it onto the main road at one point. Reducing the number of driveways reduces the potential for vehicular-pedestrian or vehicular-bicyclist conflict, as well as vehicle-vehicle conflict. For example, instead of permitting the development of ten lots with driveways on a State route, a parallel rear access road could collect traffic and deposit it onto the State route at one location. Access roads can be used for residential garages and parking, utilities, trash and recycling storage, and other utilitarian purposes, freeing space in the front of buildings for sidewalks, trees, and street furniture. By avoiding the need to use frontage for driveways, lots can be narrower, and the roadway will have fewer curb cuts. Access management and connectivity are not mutually exclusive concepts. Limiting the number of curb cuts onto the main arterial increases the importance of having many multiple, direct paths to the access 12 point. Multi-use trails and walkways can provide direct bicycle and pedestrian connectivity to access points. The Road EdgeThe Road EdgeThe Road EdgeThe Road Edge “Road edge” refers to the space between the edge of the roadway (the curb or the outside of the shoulder) and the right-of-way limit. In suburban contexts, a road edge of 13 feet generously accommodates a zone 7 feet wide for trees, lights, benches, and so on and a zone of 6 feet for pedestrian needs. The road edge plays an important role in buffering residential areas from the effects of traffic. Where possible, the Town should encourage visual and sound barriers, such as street trees or hedgerows, between major through-roads and residences. Buffers are particularly important in locations where residential development abuts a collector or arterial roadway. Furniture and AmenitiesFurniture and AmenitiesFurniture and AmenitiesFurniture and Amenities The use of street furniture should be encouraged. Examples of street “furniture” are: benches, lights, bicycle racks, newspaper boxes and mail boxes, human-scale signs, bus shelters and bus stop signs, public art, and so on. These objects are usually placed between the curb and sidewalk. It is important that they do not block sight distances or interfere with a clear pedestrian passage, according to ADA guidelines. Streetlights should be considered in the design of roads used by pedestrians in order to permit walking in the evening and to improve pedestrian visibility. More and shorter lights (8-15’ high) are preferable to fewer, taller, high-intensity lights. Practically, a larger number of streetlights means a smaller gap in the lighting system if a light burns out. Aesthetically, a larger number of gentler street lights remains within the pedestrian scale while allowing one to see the night sky. Full-spectrum lighting preserves realistic colors at night. Streetlights should be shielded, according to the Town’s lighting law, to minimize light pollution, trespass, and glare. Finally, streetlights are not appropriate in rural settings, except for certain intersections. Signage is an important part of the streetscape. Signs are most common in commercial areas. Where possible, signs should be grouped together to prevent a cluttered, confusing right-of-way. Signs should be in scale with surroundings and should comply with the Town’s sign law. TransitTransitTransitTransit Pedestrians should have a suitable area to await the bus. At heavily used bus stops, bus shelters or benches should be provided, along with schedules for routes that serve the stop. The stop should be easily visible to provide a sense of security and to ensure that the bus does not pass by people waiting for the bus. ADA guidelines suggest a flat, stable area of five feet wide by eight feet deep at the point of 13 entry onto a bus. Finally, a safe, convenient path that connects a pedestrian generator to the bus stop should be provided. Pedestrian FacilitiesPedestrian FacilitiesPedestrian FacilitiesPedestrian Facilities Sidewalks or walkways are an important part of the road edge. In general, sidewalks or walkways should be: • Barrier-free and ADA compliant, where possible; • Protected from vehicular traffic by trees, landscaping, lighting, utility poles, parking meters, signage, transit shelters, curbing, or other features; • Usually five feet wide, and 9-10 feet wide or greater in locations with very high pedestrian volumes, such as commercial areas or school zones. If the sidewalk is directly adjacent to the curb, it should be 6 feet wide. In areas where right-of-way is limited or there are other environmental constraints, four feet is allowable, but less desirable; • In developed areas, usually on both sides of the road, where feasible. Please see the second section of these Design Guidelines for more detail, such as where to include sidewalks or walkways and other ways to enhance the pedestrian environment. Road Edge Natural LandscapeRoad Edge Natural LandscapeRoad Edge Natural LandscapeRoad Edge Natural Landscape Road edge landscaping provides an attractive atmosphere for pedestrians and motorists. It encourages motorists to slow down by providing visual indications of speed (the rate the trees pass). Trees along the street shade pedestrians and provide an attractive, pedestrian-scaled design element by creating “outdoor rooms.” Furthermore, street trees can prevent snow from drifting onto the roads, simplifying winter maintenance. In residential areas, trees are usually spaced 30-40 feet apart and are placed in planting strips six feet wide or more. In commercial areas, tree wells in the sidewalk may keep trees healthier. Where trees aren’t appropriate, consider shrubs, tall grasses, wildflowers, or other vegetation. Plantings should not interfere with sight distances or otherwise present a safety hazard. Furthermore, street trees should not interfere with sidewalks. The sidewalk should be kept clear, and there should be at least seven feet of vertical clearance. Planting two trees for every tree removed fosters a living, green road corridor environment. Issues to consider when selecting plantings include: • Native species over exotic species; • Tolerance to road salt, subsoil limitations, heat, drought, strong winds, shade, and general disruptions; • Deciduous trees that provide shade in summer and sun in winter; • Ease of maintenance; • Mature height of tree (especially for trees planted near overhead utilities). 14 The Roadway and ShoulderThe Roadway and ShoulderThe Roadway and ShoulderThe Roadway and Shoulder Roadway WidthRoadway WidthRoadway WidthRoadway Width In general, the total curb-to-curb width of the roadway should be minimized, while taking into account safety and livability needs. A narrower street width reduces vehicle travel speeds, the amount of impervious road surface area, and the distance that pedestrians must cross. Lanes should be no wider than required to serve their role in the streetscape. Travel lanes on low-volume residential streets, such as those internal to a subdivision, can be 8-10 feet wide, depending on circumstances (such as shoulder and drainage conditions). Travel lanes on other roads can be 9-12 feet wide, again depending on circumstances. Roadway design should not impede emergency access. Roads are often unnecessarily wide because planners or developers aggregate the space allocated for travel lanes, bike lanes, and parking lanes into one wide road without realizing that these uses seldom occur simultaneously. Use by oversized vehicles, such as delivery trucks, moving vans, school buses and fire trucks, is generally infrequent. To keep lane width as narrow as feasible, roads should be designed for typical use, not extraordinary circumstances, as long as safety is not compromised. On relatively low- volume residential streets, a narrow street with intermittent on-street parking may occasionally require one driver to slow or pull to the side to allow another to pass; this is known as a “queuing street.” When inside a subdivision, this occasional queuing does not result in a noticeable reduction in the level of service. OnOnOnOn----Street ParkingStreet ParkingStreet ParkingStreet Parking On-street parking provides a buffer between pedestrians and moving vehicles, slows traffic, encourages motorists to stay aware of their surroundings, and reduces the need for impervious surface cover for parking if on-street parking is used instead of parking lots. In residential areas, it acts as convenient visitor parking, in turn allowing driveways to stay small, reducing impervious surface cover, and preserving space for yards. In commercial development, it decreases the need for massive parking “seas of pavement,” increases the visibility of storefronts, permits increased development density, and provides convenient passenger and freight loading and unloading space in tight spaces. Parallel parking results in a smaller curb-to-curb roadway width, but diagonal parking gets a greater number of spaces per unit of roadway length. There is a potential for conflict between bicyclists and vehicles using on-street parking. On roadways with high motor vehicle traffic volumes and speeds, and on roadways and where cyclists cannot share the travel lane with motor vehicles, bicyclists will remain close to the parked vehicles, and opening doors into the bicyclists’ path may be a hazard. In such cases, provide a parking space width of thirteen to fifteen feet (about four to four-and-a-half meters). Where cyclists can share the travel lane with motor vehicles, parking lanes can be eight to nine feet wide. 15 The need for through-traffic movement and the need for local access must be balanced with the positive attributes of on-street parking when deciding its location. It may be necessary to perform a parking supply and demand study to determine the desirability and feasibility of on-street parking. Other Design IssuesOther Design IssuesOther Design IssuesOther Design Issues Drainage and Stormwater RunoffDrainage and Stormwater RunoffDrainage and Stormwater RunoffDrainage and Stormwater Runoff Runoff from residential streets includes: sediments, oil, gasoline, phosphorous, copper, zinc, and fecal coliform bacteria. Sources of this pollution include: pavement deterioration; vehicle emissions; tire and brake pad wear; atmospheric deposition; pet waste; lawn runoff. For more information about the effects of the transportation system on water resources, see “The Natural Environment and the Transportation System” section of the full Transportation Plan. There are two main types of stormwater collection systems: underground storm sewers with curbs and gutters and open, vegetated ditches, culverts, and channels. Curb and gutter systems channel the runoff quickly into the sewer system, without any treatment. In addition, underground sewer systems are expensive to build. On the other hand, underground systems free up space for sidewalks, street trees, and other improvements in areas of limited right-of-way. Curb- face inlets and bevelled curb faces are superior to grates and flat faces, for bicyclists’ safety and ease of maintenance by plows. Open vegetated channels filter the runoff, remove pollutants, and slow the flow to the sewer system. They can also reduce the total amount of runoff entering the system. Two types of open vegetated channels are dry swales and grass channels. Open ditches are less expensive to build, but are more expensive to maintain than underground systems. They also use up more right-of-way width than underground systems. If poorly designed or maintained, vegetated channels can turn into muddy messes, and standing water can breed mosquitoes and other unwanted insects. When designing either type of stormwater treatment, it is important retain as much natural roadside vegetation as possible. Operational IssuesOperational IssuesOperational IssuesOperational Issues Roadway design raises issues of emergency vehicle access, utility placement, and snow management. Because many different agencies and organizations use the roadway for purposes such as those, it is extremely important that roadway design is coordinated with input from all stakeholders. In traditional or New Urbanist roadway network designs, there is always more than one route between any two locations. This increases the overall safety of the network, by allowing emergency vehicles to bypass 16 any areas of congestion (of which there are typically fewer). All roadway design projects must realistically assess emergency service needs, and be sure to strike an appropriate balance between the everyday needs of the neighborhood with the extraordinary and immediate needs during emergency situations. Where possible, utility infrastructure should be consolidated to preserve valuable space, which can be used for green space (such as gardens in the planting strip), sidewalks, and so on. Utilities and street lights can be co-located. In order to preserve the aesthetics of the pedestrian environment, utility cables should be located at the back of buildings where possible to avoid the impression of an ugly, industrialized area. If possible, service lines and utilities can be buried. It is essential that travel lanes for motor vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians are kept clear of snow and ice. The planting strip between the bike lane/ shoulder and the sidewalk provides a convenient snow storage space, which allows the continued use of bike lanes and sidewalks through the winter months. 17 Sample StreetscapesSample StreetscapesSample StreetscapesSample Streetscapes The topics covered in this section of The Design Guidelines outline the various aspects of streetscape design, including the relationship between the transportation network and adjacent land uses, the road edge, the roadway and shoulder, and other design issues, such as drainage and storm water treatment needs and emergency access. Sometimes, the “best practice” associated with one aspect will conflict with the “best practice” associated with another aspect. For example, on high volume, high speed roadways, it is important to provide adequate space for bicyclists. Yet overly wide roads can encourage excessive speeding, which has negative impacts on livability. In many cases, it should be possible to compensate for this effect, for instance, by accentuating a road’s vertical and horizontal curvature, or by introducing visual narrowing (contrasting shoulder material, street trees, etc.), in order to keep vehicle speeds from increasing. When designing a streetscape, therefore, it is important to balance the trade- offs associated with assigning relative priorities to the various aspects, as well as to remain flexible to alternatives (such as an off-road bike path, in the previously cited example). In addition to being flexible and balanced, streetscape design should always be site-specific and context sensitive. The Town, including the Town Board, Town Planning Board, and Town professional staff, should consider factors such as topography, drainage issues and stormwater treatments, other infrastructure, neighborhood character, and livability needs when selecting the width of a road right-of-way, the width of the lanes and shoulders, the type, design, the location of bicycle and pedestrian facilities, and other aspects of right-of-way design. The following streetscapes exemplify how design can be tailored to specific situations, and how the various aspects of streetscape design interact with each other. They are intended to be guidelines, not standards. The measurements shown in the diagrams are for illustrative purposes only; as previously noted, the design of the roadway and the width of the right-of-way should be tailored to its intended purpose and its context. The samples are based on two variations: urban/ suburban or rural land use intensity and intense traffic (high vehicular volume and/ or speed) or non-intense traffic (low vehicular volume and/or speed). In reality, as previously noted, there are many more considerations that factor into the design of a roadway. Urban/ Suburban Land Use IntensityUrban/ Suburban Land Use IntensityUrban/ Suburban Land Use IntensityUrban/ Suburban Land Use Intensity Rural Land Use IntensityRural Land Use IntensityRural Land Use IntensityRural Land Use Intensity Intense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense Traffic Diagram A Diagram C NonNonNonNon----Intense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense Traffic Diagram B Diagram D 18 (A) Urban/ Suburban, Intense Traffic(A) Urban/ Suburban, Intense Traffic(A) Urban/ Suburban, Intense Traffic(A) Urban/ Suburban, Intense Traffic (Illustrative Only) **Not to scale This example road travels through urban or suburban land uses. It carries moderate to high volumes of both local and through vehicular traffic. Lane width is wide enough to accommodate school buses, garbage trucks, delivery trucks, and other large vehicles that use the roadway on a regular basis. Based on topographic and soil considerations, the character of the neighborhood, and right-of-way constraints, storm water may be piped into underground storm sewers (right) or it may collect in swales adjacent to the roadway (left). In an urban or suburban context, a roadway with moderate to high vehicular traffic volumes and speeds should have bicycle and pedestrian accommodations (in this case, walkways for pedestrians and road shoulders for bicycles), especially if the roadway connects traffic generators such as schools, shopping centers, recreational areas, and so on. Street trees are an aspect of this streetscape design. (B) Urban/ Suburban, Non(B) Urban/ Suburban, Non(B) Urban/ Suburban, Non(B) Urban/ Suburban, Non----Intense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense Traffic (Illustrative Only) 60 feet 5 5 5 8 8 3 3 9 i *not to scale* 9 This example road carries primarily local traffic in urban or suburban land uses. Because traffic volumes and speeds are low, the lanes are narrower than Example (A) above, and the roadway does not have a shoulder. Bicyclists ride in the travel lane with motorists. This example shows sidewalks, which are an important characteristic of the streetscape in most residential areas, but some small subdivision roads may not need sidewalks. In this example, storm water is carried in concrete gutters, which visually narrow the roadway corridor. In other situations, underground pipes or above ground swales could carry storm water. Street trees are an aspect of this streetscape design. 19 (C) Rural, Intense Traffic(C) Rural, Intense Traffic(C) Rural, Intense Traffic(C) Rural, Intense Traffic (Illustrative Only) 14 14 *not to scale* 60 feet 5 11 11 5 This example road in a rural setting carries both local and through traffic, similar to many State routes in rural areas of the Town. For example, it might provide access to low-density residential development and a few farms, but it might also act as a commuter route. Thus, traffic volumes are high, especially during peak hours. The posted speed limit on this type of roadway in the Town of Ithaca typically would be 45-55 mph. Because of the long distances between destinations, bicycle and pedestrian traffic is sparse and sporadic on the paved shoulders, and there are no separate bicycle and/or pedestrian facilities, such as a sidewalk or trail. Storm water is carried in swales. (D) Rural, Non(D) Rural, Non(D) Rural, Non(D) Rural, Non----Intense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense TrafficIntense Traffic (Illustrative Only) 18 18 *not to scale* 60 feet 2 10 10 2 This example road carries primarily local traffic to rural residences. Traffic volumes are low and the speed limit is high. There is little bicycle or pedestrian traffic, and since there is plenty of “escape” room to the sides of the roadway, the shoulders are intentionally kept narrow and are not paved to reduce the effective width of the roadway and to reduce the amount of storm water run-off from the road. Storm water is carried in swales. 20 Bicycle and Pedestrian InfrastructurBicycle and Pedestrian InfrastructurBicycle and Pedestrian InfrastructurBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Designe Designe Designe Design Best Practices ToolboxBest Practices ToolboxBest Practices ToolboxBest Practices Toolbox 21 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction Bicycling and walking play an important role in the transportation network. Using these modes are often faster than driving, especially for short trips or trips in an urban area. Bicycling or walking costs much less than owning and maintaining a car, and so they play an important role in providing mobility for the young and low-income. In addition, these modes can move a greater number of people per segment of roadway than a vehicle can, as bicyclists and walkers can travel more closely to each other. Besides serving as a mode of transportation, biking and walking offer personal and societal benefits. Biking and walking improve personal physical fitness and well-being. Promoting walking and biking can play an important role in protecting public health (in fact, exercise is a component of the FDA’s revised food pyramid).1 Walking or biking instead of driving for short trips conserves fossil fuels, saves money, alleviates traffic burdens, promotes the health of the natural environment (thereby protecting human health), and protects the integrity of neighborhoods. Walking and biking foster healthy communities by encouraging social interactions on the street and by getting motorists out of their cars and onto the sidewalks, next to shopping and social opportunities. The Town of Ithaca envisions a transportation system that supports bicycling and walking that is safe, pleasurable, and convenient to destinations. Streets would be well-designed to accommodate both motorized and non-motorized modes of transportation, and off-road paths for non-motorized transportation would complete the network. The Town of Ithaca Transportation Plan offers guidance on the development of a bicycle and pedestrian system for the Town. First, the Plan shows the locations that are in need of improvements for bicyclists and/ or pedestrians. Appendix VI, “Identifying and Prioritizing Bicycle and Pedestrian Improvements,” outlines criteria for determining whether a location needs bicycle or pedestrian improvements, as well as identifying corridors within the Town that meet the criteria. Maps 13 and 14 (“Prioritized Pedestrian Corridor Needs” and “Prioritized Bicycle Corridor Needs”) in Appendix I show the identified and prioritized locations in need of pedestrian and bicycle improvements. The criteria and maps do not recommend any particular type of improvement for each location, nor do they explain the best practices associated with bicycle- and pedestrian-oriented design. This toolbox, “Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices Toolbox,” is a complement to the maps in Appendix I and the information in Appendix VI. It explores the various types of bicycle and pedestrian facilities, the major design considerations for each, and the types of situations when each is appropriate. This toolbox of ideas is not meant to dictate the design of each and every future bicycle and pedestrian facility. Instead, it is meant to be a starting point for planners, engineers, and decision- makers when they consider the trade-offs associated with each design. 1 USDA, undated 22 Pedestrian InfrastructurePedestrian InfrastructurePedestrian InfrastructurePedestrian Infrastructure Types of Pedestrian InfrastructureTypes of Pedestrian InfrastructureTypes of Pedestrian InfrastructureTypes of Pedestrian Infrastructure There are four main types of pedestrian infrastructure: sidewalks, walkways, multi-use paths, and road shoulders. In these Design Guidelines, sidewalks and walkways are discussed together because functionally they are the same: a strip of concrete or asphalt that runs roughly parallel to a roadway. In the Town of Ithaca, walkways are owned and maintained by the Town. Sidewalks are owned and maintained by property owners. Walkways play a broader role in the transportation network by serving pedestrians through traffic. Sidewalks, on the other hand, are mainly for the benefit of residences directly adjacent to it. Sidewalks and walkways are supposed to be for the exclusive use of pedestrians. Multi-use paths are paths of various materials used by multiple modes, such as walking and bicycling. They are often used for recreation purposes, as well as serving transportation needs. Multi-use paths may or may not run parallel to a roadway. Finally, the road shoulder is the paved or unpaved strip outside the travel lane. Road shoulders are used by pedestrians, as well as bicyclists and motorists. In rural areas, road shoulders most commonly serve pedestrian travel. Sidewalks and Walkways In the Town of Ithaca, sidewalks and walkways in a residential area should have five feet of clear space. This means that a five foot wide walkway with a one foot wide utility pole in the middle of the walkway would be considered only two feet wide. The walkway or sidewalk should be separated from the road by a planting strip (where trees should be planted). Where a planting strip would be impossible and the sidewalk or walkway must be adjacent to the roadway, the sidewalk or walkway should be six feet wide and preferably separated from the roadway by curbing. Sidewalks or walkways in commercial, educational, or other institutional land uses where a relatively high volume of pedestrian traffic is anticipated should be at least six feet wide, but may be as wide as eight or nine feet, depending on need. Finally, sidewalks or walkways in areas with limited right- of-way or other environmental constraints may be four feet wide. Multi-use Paths Multi-use paths, also known as off-street paths or off-street trails, provide a non-motorized facility that is completely separate from motor vehicle traffic but shared among pedestrians, bicyclists, joggers, inline 23 skaters, skateboarders, and others. Multi-use paths often serve both recreation and transportation purposes. Multi-use paths that connect bicycle and pedestrian generators, such as residential areas, commercial areas, schools, and so on, should be paved to improve accessibility. Multi-use paths that serve primarily a recreation function may be gravel or wood chips. A well-designed multi-use path begins and ends at easily accessible, secure points, has many access points along its length, and is built to a high standard to allow maintenance equipment to use the path. A multi-use path must be of a sufficient width to accommodate multiple uses and safe passing. In some low-density residential areas, the multi- use path may be as narrow as five feet wide. In other higher-traffic areas, the multi-use path may be up to ten feet wide, plus some shoulder room. Importantly, conflict points where the multi-use path crosses a roadway must be carefully designed to protect pedestrian, bicyclist, and motorist safety. Examples of multi-use trails in the Town include the South Hill Recreation Way and the East Ithaca Recreation Way. The planned trail system of the Town’s Park, Recreation, and Open Space Plan will likely consist of multi-use paths. Paved Shoulders A paved shoulder is a multi-use space, used for bicycle and pedestrian travel, motor vehicle emergencies, or on-street parking. In rural areas where there are fewer pedestrians, road shoulders are an acceptable pedestrian facility. The typical paved shoulder is striped two to four feet from the outside of the pavement. In a case where there is a relatively high number of bicyclists or pedestrians, a high volume of vehicles, or a road with a high posted speed limit or a steep grade, shoulders of four to six feet in width allow pedestrians to stay farther away from the traffic stream. Signage can alert motorists to the presence of pedestrians and bicyclists. It is important to consider that wider roads, including roads with wide shoulders, encourage motorists to drive at a high speed. Therefore, a separate facility, such as a sidewalk, walkway, or multi-use path, may offer greater pedestrian safety than a road shoulder. ADA AccessADA AccessADA AccessADA Access The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) includes guidelines for the design of facilities that are accessible to the disabled. Where possible, it calls for a clear, open path at least three feet wide, but preferably five feet wide, constructed of a stable, firm material that is not slippery under usual conditions. Grade should be limited to a maximum of 5% (in general), and cross-slopes should be limited to 2%. Finally, it recommends auditory or textural cues to guide the visually impaired, such as textured pavement at the entrance to a curb ramp from the sidewalk into a crosswalk. ADA guidelines say that objects, such as utility poles or planters, should not be in the pedestrian path, and objects placed outside the pedestrian path should not protrude into it, such as a sign posted outside the sidewalk that hangs over the sidewalk. Pedestrian facilities should be well maintained, including 24 during the winter. What is adequate for the able-bodied may be completely unacceptable for a wheelchair user. Also, it emphasizes the importance of curb cuts at crosswalks (see below). For more information about ADA accessible design, see ADA Standards for Accessible Design, online at the Department of Justice’s website (<http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/stdspdf.htm>, current as of September 27, 2006). Intersections, Crosswalks, and Traffic Signals Intersections, Crosswalks, and Traffic Signals Intersections, Crosswalks, and Traffic Signals Intersections, Crosswalks, and Traffic Signals Crosswalks should be 6’ – 10’ wide (depending on the width of the approaching sidewalk) and generally should be located at intersections. The preferred form of crosswalk for painted crosswalks is “ladder striping” or “zebra striping,” shown at right, because it is generally more visible . ADA-compliant curb ramps should always be provided at each crosswalk. Midblock crossings are justified for safety or convenience purposes, including areas of frequent child or elderly pedestrians, high pedestrian traffic, or where crosswalks would otherwise be more than 400-600 feet apart. Midblock crossings should be marked with ladder-style striping; combined with other pedestrian improvements or traffic calming features, such as bulb-outs; illuminated; and indicated with advance notice to motorists in the form of highly visible signage. Traffic calming concepts, such as raised medians, bulbouts, textured pavers, or raised crosswalks, can enhance the safety of a pedestrian crossing. Illumination and signage are two other safety tools. Pedestrian activated signals can be incorporated into crossing designs to provide a safe passage across a busy road and to discourage pedestrians from darting into traffic to “beat” the approaching vehicles. Some signals have a digital countdown, displaying the seconds remaining until the traffic resumes, such as the signal shown at right. Other Pedestrian Environment EnhancementsOther Pedestrian Environment EnhancementsOther Pedestrian Environment EnhancementsOther Pedestrian Environment Enhancements There are many ways to enhance the pedestrian environment in order to encourage walking and to promote beautiful neighborhoods. For example: • Landscaping and other improvements created at the pedestrian scale for aesthetic enjoyment and to buffer pedestrians from motor vehicle traffic, where appropriate; • Adequate lighting at a pedestrian scale and/or emergency call boxes for safety; • Awnings, street trees, or other shelters for shade. In addition to the above ideas, the following can enhance commercial or recreational areas: • Benches for rest; • Water fountains for refreshment; 25 • Public restrooms; • Local maps; • Informative or interpretive signs. Bicycle InfrastructureBicycle InfrastructureBicycle InfrastructureBicycle Infrastructure Types of Bicycle InfrastructureTypes of Bicycle InfrastructureTypes of Bicycle InfrastructureTypes of Bicycle Infrastructure There are five main types of bicycle infrastructure: a shared lane, a wide curb lane, a paved shoulder, a bicycle lane, and a multi-use path. The shared lane is the simplest type of infrastructure; the bicyclist shares a paved travel lane with motor vehicles. A wide curb lane is an outside lane widened to provide room for the bicyclist to maneuver and for motorists to safely pass the bicyclist. Wide curb lanes are especially helpful on uphill climbs. A paved shoulder is a striped, multi-use travel way adjacent to the outside travel lane that is used by bicyclists, pedestrians, and motorists. A bicycle lane is a paved area generally to the outside of the curb lane that is striped and signed for the exclusive use of bicyclists. As previously noted, multi-use paths are completely separate from motor vehicle traffic but shared between pedestrians, bicyclists, and others. Shared Lane Shared lane bicycle treatments are basically a road, “as is.” This is the most common bikeway design. In a shared lane, bicyclists ride in the same lane with motor vehicles traveling in the same direction. The design specifications of the road itself vary greatly, and signage is used to alert motorists to the presence of bicyclists. Because there is no specific treatment for bicyclists besides the signage, shared lanes are the most cost effective bicycle facility, although they are not suitable for all bicyclists or all roadways. Shared lanes are generally used for low-volume, low-speed residential streets, for minor collector roads, and in rural areas. Outside of low-volume, low-speed roads, shared lanes are best for experienced bicyclists. 2’ gutter/ shoulder | 2’ gutter/ shoulder 10-12’ shared travel lane Example Cross-Section: Shared Lane Local/ Minor Collector Roads, Rural Areas 26 Wide Curb Lane Wide curb lanes are lanes that are widened to allow motorists to pass bicyclists. On uphill climbs, they give the bicyclist room to maneuver. A wide curb lane is between fourteen and sixteen feet wide (wide enough to allow motorists to pass bicyclists, but not so wide as to permit passing on the right). In order to discourage speeding due to overly wide roads, in the Town of Ithaca wide curb lanes should be limited to uphill climbing lanes where a separate, paved shoulder is not feasible. Paved Shoulder A paved shoulder is a multi-use space, used for bicycle and pedestrian travel, motor vehicle emergencies, or on-street parking. The typical paved shoulder is striped four feet from the outside of the pavement. In many cases, such as a high volume of bicyclists, a high volume of vehicles, or a road with a high posted speed limit or a steep grade, shoulders of four to six feet in width are possible. Signage alerts motorists to the presence of bicyclists. 5’ sidewalk | 5’ sidewalk planting strip | planting strip 2’ shoulder | 2’ shoulder 15’ uphilluphilluphilluphill lane | 10’ downhill lane Example Cross-Section: Wide Outside (Curb) Lane Uphill climbing lanes 5’ sidewalk | 5’ sidewalk planting strip | planting strip 5’ paved, striped shoulder | 5’ paved, striped shoulder 11’ travel lane | 11’ travel lane Example Cross-Section: Paved Shoulder Collector or Arterial Road 27 Bicycle Lane A bicycle lane is similar to a paved shoulder except that it is for the exclusive use of bicyclists. Bike lanes are one-way facilities on each side of the road that carry bicycle traffic traveling in the same direction as motor vehicle traffic. Bicycle lanes are considered to be the safest on-street option for high volume, high speed roads where there is significant bicycle traffic because they provide a clearly delineated bicycle space of sufficient width. Bicycle lanes are rarely appropriate in rural areas. A bicycle lane is at least four feet wide and usually has two feet of curbside gutter space, where curbs and gutters are present. This space allows bicyclists to ride separate from motor vehicle traffic while still avoiding grates and debris in the gutter. Adjacent to guardrails or curbs, bike lanes should be five feet wide. In areas of very high vehicular speeds or volumes, steep grades, or many obstacles (grates, on- street parking), bike lanes can be six feet wide. The use of colored pavement visually narrows the roadway and clearly delineates the space available for motorists, which helps to mitigate potentially increased motor vehicle speeds due to an increased roadway width. 6’ sidewalk | 6’ sidewalk planting strip | planting strip 2’ gutter space | 2’ gutter space 5’ bike lane | 5’ bike lane 11’ travel lane | 11’ travel lane Example Cross-Section: Bicycle Lane Collector or Arterial Road 28 Multi-Use Path As previously noted, multi-use paths, also known as off-street paths or off-street trails, provide a non- motorized facility that is completely separate from vehicle traffic but shared among pedestrians, bicyclists, joggers, inline skaters, skateboarders, and others. Multi-use paths often serve both recreation and transportation purposes. Multi-use paths that connect bicycle and pedestrian generators, such as residential areas, commercial areas, schools, and so on, should be paved to improve accessibility. Multi- use paths that serve primarily a recreation function may be gravel or wood chips. A well-designed multi- use path begins and ends at easily accessible, secure points, has many access points along its length, and is built to a high standard to allow maintenance equipment to use the path. An off-street path must be of a sufficient width to accommodate multiple uses and safe passing. In some low-density residential areas, the multi-use path may be as narrow as five feet wide. In other higher-traffic areas, the multi-use path may be up to ten or twelve feet wide, plus some shoulder room. Importantly, conflict points where the multi-use path crosses a roadway must be carefully designed to protect pedestrian, bicyclist, and motorist safety. Examples of multi-use trails in the Town include the South Hill Recreation Way and the East Ithaca Recreation Way. The planned trail system of the Town’s Park, Recreation, and Open Space Plan will likely consist of multi-use paths. Bicycle ParkingBicycle ParkingBicycle ParkingBicycle Parking Bicycle parking should be considered just as important as automobile parking when designing a site plan. According to the Bicycle Parking Guidelines published by the Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals, bicycle racks must accomplish all of the following: • Support the bicycle upright by its frame in two places; • Prevent the wheel of the bicycle from tipping over; • Enable the frame and one or both wheels to be secure; • Support bicycles that don’t have a diamond shaped frame with a horizontal top tube; • Allow both front-in and back-in parking; • Allow the use of U-locks, chain locks, or both. 5-12’ wide +/- 2’ graded shoulder 29 Three types of designs that accomplish all of the above are the inverted-U rack, the A rack, and the post- and-loop rack. Each of these types of rack can support two bicycles. Furthermore, the bicycle racks must be installed properly to maximize the number of available spaces. Racks should be parallel to each other, and there should be sufficient room between the racks, bicycles, and adjacent objects. The Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals recommends the minimum spacing shown in the diagram at right. Bicycle parking facilities must be secure, protecting bikes from theft and vandalism. Bicycle parking should be in a highly visible or otherwise secure location (in a well-lit, covered outdoor area or indoors) and removed from motor vehicle/ pedestrian conflict areas. Bicycle parking should be as close as possible to the building that it serves without interfering with pedestrian traffic, and not more than 50 feet away from the building entrance. Bicycle parking areas near apartments, transit stops, schools, etc. should protect bicycles from inclement weather, preferably covered by an awning, building overhang, or other cover. Suggested Number of Bicycle Parking Spaces per Land Use Residential:Residential:Residential:Residential: • Multi-Family Dwelling: 2, or 1 per auto space (whichever is greater) • Group Living: 1 per 20 auto spaces • All Others: none Commercial:Commercial:Commercial:Commercial: • Retail sales, services, or offices: 2, or 1 per 20 auto spaces (whichever is greater) • Commercial parking, major event destinations: 4, or 1 per 20 auto spaces (whichever is greater) • Drive-up vehicle servicing, repair, or self storage: None IndustrialIndustrialIndustrialIndustrial: 2, or 1 per 40 auto spaces, whichever is greater ServicesServicesServicesServices: • Community services, essential providers: 2, or 1 per 20 auto spaces (whichever is greater) • Outdoor recreation, parks: 4, or 1 per 20 auto spaces (whichever is greater) • High Schools: 4 per classroom • Middle Schools: 2 per classroom • Elementary Schools: 2 per 4th & 5th grade classroom • Colleges, medical centers, religious institutions, daycare: 2, or 1 per 20 auto spaces (whichever is greater) 30 Bicycle Facility Best PracticBicycle Facility Best PracticBicycle Facility Best PracticBicycle Facility Best Practiceseseses When designing a roadway, the use of open drainage grates should be avoided, as they can catch the bicycle wheel and cause a crash. Thus, inlets set into the curb are preferable. Bicycle facilities, such as bike lanes, should intersect with railroad beds at a 90o angle for the same reason (the rail may catch the bicycle wheel and cause a crash). Because bicyclists cannot escape from the motor vehicle stream in the event of an emergency, bicycle access on adjacent sidewalks should be considered over bridges (perhaps via a “dismount” zone). Signal triggers are very useful for bicyclists at intersections. Finally, the pavement should be well-maintained and as smooth as possible, and all debris in the bicyclists’ path should be cleared as soon as possible. Mixing bicyclists and pedestrians on a sidewalk should be avoided whenever possible. Rumble strips, extruding curbs, reflectors, manholes, catch basins, and other objects should not be placed in the bicyclists’ path. Finally, two-way bike lanes (where both lanes are on one side of the road) should never be permitted. 31 How to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian FacilityHow to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian FacilityHow to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian FacilityHow to Select a Bicycle or Pedestrian Facility The “Prioritized Pedestrian Corridor Needs Map” (Map 13) and the “Prioritized Bicycle Corridor Needs Map” (Map 14) in Appendix I show locations identified as needing pedestrian and/or bicycle improvements. The following outline lists situations where each type of pedestrian or bicycle facility may be appropriate. Shared LanesShared LanesShared LanesShared Lanes Lanes shared among pedestrians, bicyclists, and motor vehicles are appropriate in the following cases: • Low volume, low speed roads in residential areas; • Other low volume, low speed roadways, when provision of a sidewalk or walkway would not improve pedestrian safety or improve the pedestrian environment. ShouldeShouldeShouldeShouldersrsrsrs Considerations that indicate a potential need for paved shoulders include: • Higher density or intensity of non-residential land use (in particular, neighborhood commercial, community commercial, or office park commercial zones); • Within ½ mile of a school or university, commercial center, employment center, major transit stop, parks or other recreational facilities (like playgrounds), places of worship, post offices, municipal buildings or community centers, restaurants or other locations that would generate pedestrian or bicycle traffic; • Moderate to high vehicle volumes (greater than approximately 1,000 ADT); • High 85th percentile vehicle speeds OR moderate 85th percentile vehicle speed coupled with high vehicle volumes. Considerations that counter-indicate the provision of paved road shoulders include: • With reasonable effort, the design, construction, and maintenance of the shoulder cannot mitigate detrimental effects on environmental resources, including natural, historic, and scenic resources; • An existing or planned off-road, multi-use path offers a more direct or safer route than a shoulder; • In general, residential streets in suburban areas do not need shoulders (paved or otherwise). In particular, low-volume residential streets with low posted speed limits do not need paved shoulders. In addition, the unnecessary increased roadway width increases pedestrian crossing time and can potentially lead to increased motor vehicle speeds. Sidewalks/ WalkwaysSidewalks/ WalkwaysSidewalks/ WalkwaysSidewalks/ Walkways Considerations that indicate a potential need for a sidewalk or walkway include: • Higher density or intensity of land use (medium and high density residential, neighborhood/ office park commercial, etc); 32 • Located along the route of a bus2; • Within ½ mile of an elementary school, assisted living facility, or employment/ activity center for the disabled; • Within ½ mile of other pedestrian generators (like middle schools, high schools or universities, commercial centers, employment centers, major transit stops, parks or other recreational facilities (like playgrounds), places of worship, post offices, municipal buildings or community centers, restaurants, or other locations that would generate pedestrian traffic); • High 85th percentile speed; speed limit greater than 25 mph; • Roadway of high volume and classification (arterials or collectors; > 4,000 vpd); • Links into existing or planned pedestrian network (as shown in the Park, Recreation, and Open Space Plan); • Current infrastructure is insufficient: a paved shoulder less than four feet wide, or a deteriorated pavement or gravel shoulder less than five feet wide. Considerations that counter-indicate sidewalk or walkway provision include: • With reasonable effort, the design, construction, and maintenance of the sidewalk or walkway cannot mitigate detrimental effects on environmental resources, including natural, historic, and scenic resources; • Adjacent land use is rural; improved shoulders are a better investment; • An existing or planned off-road, multi-use path offers a more direct or safer route than a sidewalk or walkway adjacent to a road. Bicycle LanesBicycle LanesBicycle LanesBicycle Lanes Bicycle lanes on a roadway are appropriate if all of the following conditions apply: • There are high motor vehicle traffic volumes and speeds; • The roadway is in a densely developed suburban or urban area; • There is or will be sufficient bicycle traffic. MultiMultiMultiMulti----Use PathUse PathUse PathUse Path The following are considerations that indicate a potential need for an off-road trail or multi-use path: • Connectivity along the roadway is not possible (for example, to connect the end of a cul-de-sac with a neighboring roadway); • An off-road, multi-use trail would offer a more direct or safer route than a facility along the roadway corridor; • An expansion of the roadway corridor itself would harm the natural, historic, or cultural significance of an area; 2 "Location along a bus route" is more accurate than "location within ½ mile of a bus stop" because TCAT allows riders to "flag" the bus for pick-up at locations other than a stop. Thus, pedestrians/ commuters can potentially wait along the length of the bus route. "Location along a bus route" is more logical than "within ½ mile of a bus route" because the latter is an unreasonably large buffer that includes all of the roads within ½ mile of the bus route. 33 • The trail is likely to capture recreational, as well as transportation, users. 34 Site Plan Review ChecklistSite Plan Review ChecklistSite Plan Review ChecklistSite Plan Review Checklist The purpose of this checklist is to provide planners, Planning Board members, developers, and other stakeholders in the development process with a summary of the most important bicycle- and pedestrian- related issues that should be addressed during the site plan review process. Since it would be possible to answer all of the following questions affirmatively, yet still have an environment that is unpleasant or unsafe for bicyclists or pedestrians, stakeholders should also consider the following broad questions: • Does this development promoting walking and biking?Does this development promoting walking and biking?Does this development promoting walking and biking?Does this development promoting walking and biking? • Will this development result in an environment that is pleasant for people on foot or biWill this development result in an environment that is pleasant for people on foot or biWill this development result in an environment that is pleasant for people on foot or biWill this development result in an environment that is pleasant for people on foot or bicycle?cycle?cycle?cycle? Site Layout (see pages 9Site Layout (see pages 9Site Layout (see pages 9Site Layout (see pages 9----11 of 11 of 11 of 11 of Volume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design Guidelines)))) (Y) (N) As far as possible and where appropriate, are buildings oriented toward the street? Are access points (driveways) to the site consolidated and minimized? Are buildings on the site clustered, to encourage people to walk between buildings, instead of moving their cars? Motor Vehicle Parking (see pages 10Motor Vehicle Parking (see pages 10Motor Vehicle Parking (see pages 10Motor Vehicle Parking (see pages 10----11 of 11 of 11 of 11 of Volume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design Guidelines)))) (Y) (N) Is motor vehicle parking at the side or rear of the site? Is the parking lot size minimized as far as possible? Is there ample landscaping, especially shade trees, throughout the parking lot? Are parking lot lights numerous, set close to the ground, and adequately shielded to prevent glare and light trespass? Is it possible to use a surface more pervious than asphalt? Bicycle Parking (see pages 30Bicycle Parking (see pages 30Bicycle Parking (see pages 30Bicycle Parking (see pages 30----31 of 31 of 31 of 31 of Volume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design Guidelines)))) (Y) (N) Are there a sufficient number of bicycle parking spaces Is the proposed type of rack adequate? Will the racks be located as close as possible to the entrance of the building that they will serve? Does the site plan show that the racks will be installed correctly? 35 Pedestrian Circulation & Accessibility (see pages 9Pedestrian Circulation & Accessibility (see pages 9Pedestrian Circulation & Accessibility (see pages 9Pedestrian Circulation & Accessibility (see pages 9----11, 2411, 2411, 2411, 24----26 of 26 of 26 of 26 of VolVolVolVolume III: The Design Guidelinesume III: The Design Guidelinesume III: The Design Guidelinesume III: The Design Guidelines)))) (Y) (N) (Y) (N) Are the pedestrian paths continuous, delineated, and clearly visible to motorists and pedestrians? Does the site plan meet ADA guidelines, where possible? Do paths lead directly from parking lots, building entrances, and other locations on adjacent sites? Are walkways, sidewalks, or on-site paths designed correctly? Problems to avoid include: Does the walkway have five feet of clear space, without utility poles, signs, mailboxes, etc in the middle of it? Are the walkways free of barriers, such as fences or landscaping? If there is underground drainage, are the inlets flush against the curb, instead of a grate in the bicyclists’ path? Is the bicyclists’ path free of manholes? Site Amenities (see pages 1Site Amenities (see pages 1Site Amenities (see pages 1Site Amenities (see pages 1----4, 94, 94, 94, 9----11 of 11 of 11 of 11 of Volume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design GuidelinesVolume III: The Design Guidelines)))) (Y) (N) Is the site constructed at a human scale (are signs small, are light poles low to the ground, is the building façade visually interesting without long, blank, windowless stretches of wall)? Where possible and appropriate, does the site plan create outdoor rooms or memorable public spaces, with benches, fountains, landscaping, tree canopies, public art, and other enhancements? 36 Traffic Calming DesignTraffic Calming DesignTraffic Calming DesignTraffic Calming Design Best PrBest PrBest PrBest Practices Toolboxactices Toolboxactices Toolboxactices Toolbox 37 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction The purpose of this section of Volume III: The Design Guidelines is to present the most common traffic calming treatments and to identify the treatments most likely to be useful in the Town of Ithaca. This manual is not an exhaustive study of all traffic calming installations. Detailed, well-written, authoritative sources of further information are listed in the Works Cited Appendix of Volume II: The Appendices. Traffic calming programs must be tailored to specific situations; thus, the details herein are not explicit policies of the Town. According to the Institute for Traffic Engineers (ITE), “Traffic calming is the combination of mainly physical measures that reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use, alter driver behavior and improve conditions for non-motorized street users.”3 Traffic calming aims to change the design and the role of the street to reduce the negative social and environmental effects of motor vehicles on individuals (e.g., speed, intrusion, etc.). Specifically, traffic calming can help to lower driving speeds, reduce aggressive driving, increase motorists’ respect for non-motorized street users, promote walking and cycling by making the streetscape environment safe and pleasant, discourage the use of residential streets by non-resident cut through vehicular traffic, increase safety and decrease the severity of accidents that do occur, improve streetscape aesthetics and livability, etc.4 Traffic calming potentially can have negative impacts, as well. Projects involving traffic calming can incur additional design, construction, and maintenance costs, and poorly implemented traffic calming projects can introduce liability issues. Delay increases for motorists (including residents) can be frustrating, and traffic can spill over from traffic calmed streets to non-traffic calmed streets, as motorists seek alternate routes. Poorly designed traffic calming measures can impede the mobility of bicyclists and pedestrians and increase the amount of noise and pollution emitted from vehicles speeding up and slowing down. Finally, traffic calming can pose a problem for roadway drainage and for emergency and service vehicle accessibility. The following is a list of measures that are most likely to be relevant to the Town of Ithaca: • Speed humps • Speed tables • Raised crosswalks • Lateral shifts/ chicanes/ serpentine roadways • Neckouts/ bulbouts/ curb extensions 3 Lockwood, Ian. "ITE Traffic Calming Definition." ITE Journal. July 1997. 4 New York State Highway Design Manual, Chapter 25, Section 2.3 and “General Objectives of Traffic Calming; Traffic Calming Measures.” U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. <http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/tcalm> 38 • Chokers • Bike lanes • Partial road closures • Gateway treatments • Street narrowing, via a “road diet” or a visual narrowing • Other streetscape features, such as pavement treatments and street trees Volume Control MeasuresVolume Control MeasuresVolume Control MeasuresVolume Control Measures Volume control measures are appropriate on residential streets in areas of large volumes of through- traffic or intersections where unsafe turns are common. In all cases, volume control measures must only be used where the goal is to restore primacy to the residential character of the neighborhood or to the non-motorized users of the street. Volume control measures are quite effective in reducing the number of vehicles using a street while maintaining or increasing non-motorized access. Negative aspects of diversions include the inconvenience of local residents, who must take an indirect route to their home, and the lack of speed reduction for the remaining motorists. Emergency access is a very important issue that must be addressed. All volume control measures must be evaluated carefully within the context of the greater transportation network. Used inappropriately, volume control measures can potentially shift traffic burdens to other neighborhoods. Before installation of volume control measures, input from residents along alternate routes that will see an increase of traffic must be considered. Fortunately, volume control measures can be installed temporarily to gauge their effectiveness and acceptance. 39 Partial Road/ HalfPartial Road/ HalfPartial Road/ HalfPartial Road/ Half----Street ClosureStreet ClosureStreet ClosureStreet Closure • Description: Motor vehicle traffic is restricted to the outbound direction at the intersection. Bicyclists & pedestrians are allowed in both directions, as signage indicates. The roadway remains two-way within the neighborhood. Most effective when used as a series. • Advantages: • Controls the pattern of traffic diffusion • Prevents cut-through traffic from major throughways. • Functions as a curb extension if brought well into the travel lane. • Disadvantages: • Inconvenience to residents. • Potentially confusing to emergency responders • Little effect on speed • Potential for violations, especially late at night. • Approximate Cost: ~$10,000-25,000, less if there are few drainage issues5 Bus, Bike, and PedestrianBus, Bike, and PedestrianBus, Bike, and PedestrianBus, Bike, and Pedestrian----Only AccessOnly AccessOnly AccessOnly Access • Description: Variation on the partial closure. Only buses, bicyclists, and pedestrians are permitted to enter a roadway. Motor vehicle traffic is restricted to the outbound direction at the intersection. • Advantages: • Prevents cut-through traffic from major throughways • Controls the pattern of traffic diffusion • Does not impede emergency responders • Permits roadway to remain two-way within the neighborhood • Disadvantages: • Inconvenient for residents, but less inconvenient than other treatments • No effect on speeds • Greater potential for violations than with partial road closure • Approximate Cost: ~$10,000-30,000 5 The cost estimates in this section are from the Victoria Transport Policy Institute’s Online Transportation Demand Management Encyclopedia, available at <http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm4.htm> 40 CulCulCulCul----dededede----sac or Dead End (Full Road Closure)sac or Dead End (Full Road Closure)sac or Dead End (Full Road Closure)sac or Dead End (Full Road Closure) • Description: Traffic is completely prevented from utilizing an intersection. Bicycle traffic should be permitted and signed as such. Removable bollards or gates can augment emergency access. Most effective used in series. • Advantages: • Effective at restricting volumes • Disadvantages: • Not recommended if restricting to emergency vehicles, bicyclists, or pedestrians. • Very little effect on speed • Inconvenient to local residents • Can shift traffic burdens to other roads/ neighborhoods • Approximate Cost: ~$30,000-100,000 Diagonal DiverterDiagonal DiverterDiagonal DiverterDiagonal Diverter • Description: A physical barrier that forces traffic at a four- way intersection to turn from the path of travel and to make a ninety-degree turn. • Advantages: • Discourages non-local traffic • Through-traffic is eliminated • Conflicts involving pedestrians reduced while not affecting their access • Less impact on residents than a full closure • Disadvantages: • Still inconvenient to residents • Potential confusion for emergency vehicles (if roads are not renamed) • Can shift problems elsewhere • Approximate Cost: ~$15,000-45,000 41 Channelization/ ForcedChannelization/ ForcedChannelization/ ForcedChannelization/ Forced----TurnTurnTurnTurn Lane/ Turn Diverter Lane/ Turn Diverter Lane/ Turn Diverter Lane/ Turn Diverter • Description: Very similar to a diagonal diverter, but provides more turning options for traffic and can be used at triangular intersections. • Advantages: • Reduces through-traffic • Forces right turns • Reduces left turn and rear end accidents • Does not directly impede emergency vehicles • Disadvantages: • Inconvenience to residents in reaching their homes • Potential confusion for emergency vehicles (if roads are not renamed) • Requires regular maintenance of signing, striping, and landscaping • Approximate Cost: ~$15,000-45,000 Median BarrierMedian BarrierMedian BarrierMedian Barrier • Description: Median or center island located in the path of an intersecting road. • Advantages: • Reduces cut-through traffic by preventing motor vehicle traffic from traveling directly through the intersection • Controls traffic patterns by forcing traffic from an intersecting roadway into a right turn onto the main roadway • Safer intersection by reducing conflicting turning movements • Avoids need for expensive traffic signals • Disadvantages: • Inconvenience to residents • Potentially confusing to emergency responders • Can shift traffic to other intersections with existing left turn opportunities • Approximate Cost: ~$10,000-20,000 42 Vertical Speed Control MeasuresVertical Speed Control MeasuresVertical Speed Control MeasuresVertical Speed Control Measures Speed HumpSpeed HumpSpeed HumpSpeed Hump • Description: Speed humps are rounded, raised pavement sections. They are generally used in a mid- block series 300-600 ft apart. (Note: The piles of asphalt, e.g. “speed bumps,” that commercial property owners place in their parking lots are not proper speed humps.) • Advantages: • Encourages motorists to drive slowly and steadily • When constructed correctly—long enough to accommodate the entire wheelbase of a vehicle— should not affect chronic pain sufferers • Disadvantages: • Potential for increased noise due to braking and accelerating vehicles, if humps are spaced too far apart • If constructed incorrectly, can be jarring for people with spinal cord injuries • Potential delays for emergency vehicles • Can shift traffic to other roads • Can interfere with street drainage, unless sufficient clear space is left adjacent to the curbs. • Approximate Cost: ~$1,000 Speed TableSpeed TableSpeed TableSpeed Table • Description: Speed tables are elevated, flat-topped, pavement or textured surface sections long enough for the entire wheel-base of a vehicle to rest on top. • Advantages: • Speed tables have advantages similar to those of speed humps, plus they are better for emergency response routes than humps (tables cause less delay) • Disadvantages: • Speed tables have disadvantages similar to those of speed humps. • Approximate Cost: ~$2,000-15,000 43 Raised CrosswalkRaised CrosswalkRaised CrosswalkRaised Crosswalk • Description: A variation on the speed table that is striped and signed as a crosswalk; often utilizes textured pavements. • Advantages: • Increases prominence of walkway and motorists’ awareness of the crossing • Elevates pedestrians as they cross; increased visibility decreases pedestrian/ motorist crashes • Disadvantages: • Pedestrians may become overconfident & may act unsafely • More maintenance than striped sidewalk • Can interfere with street’s surface drainage • Approximate Cost: ~$2,000-15,000 Raised IntersectionRaised IntersectionRaised IntersectionRaised Intersection • Description: ramps lead to the intersection that is a raised, flat area. Often, all or part of the intersection is textured. • Advantages: • Useful in densely developed areas where mid-block traffic calming devices result in an unacceptable loss of parking or through movement • Best utilized as part of a larger traffic calming scheme • Make pedestrians more visible to motorists and more confident about using the street • Does not affect access • Can also be used on high volume streets, unlike many other measures • Disadvantages: • Reduction in speed at the intersection, but mid-block speed reductions are generally 10% or less when no other traffic calming measure is present • Expensive • Emergency vehicles delay • Can interfere with street’s surface drainage • Approximate Cost: ~$25,000-75,000 44 Horizontal Speed Control MeasuresHorizontal Speed Control MeasuresHorizontal Speed Control MeasuresHorizontal Speed Control Measures Neighborhood Traffic Circle/ Intersection IslandNeighborhood Traffic Circle/ Intersection IslandNeighborhood Traffic Circle/ Intersection IslandNeighborhood Traffic Circle/ Intersection Island • Description: raised islands situated in the middle of an intersection, around which traffic must navigate in a counter-clockwise direction. • Advantages: • Accommodates emergency vehicles and school buses with large turning radii through a lowered, mountable curb of rubber or concrete • Reduces accident potential once drivers are accustomed to the design, especially at complex intersections • Good alternative to stop signs • Disadvantages: • Landscaped circles are aesthetically superior, but require maintenance. • Illumination at night and pedestrian visibility can be a problem • Untraditional bike and pedestrian crossings patterns • Can be awkward for snow plowing • Approximate Cost: ~$6,000 Modern RoundaboutModern RoundaboutModern RoundaboutModern Roundabout • Description: circular intersections with a large, raised island around which traffic circulates. Larger than neighborhood traffic circles with a raised splitter island to channel traffic to the right. • Advantages: • Can accommodate emergency vehicles, school buses, and other large vehicles • Use at accident-prone intersections can reduce collisions by as much as 70% • Disadvantages: • Large volumes of large vehicles turning left can be problematic • Illumination at night and pedestrian visibility can be a problem • Motorists can be confused in multi-lane circles • Approximate Cost: ~$45,000-150,000. Up to $250,000 for roundabouts on major arterials. 45 Chicane/ Serpentine RoadwayChicane/ Serpentine RoadwayChicane/ Serpentine RoadwayChicane/ Serpentine Roadway • Description: chicanes are curb extensions used to create a lateral shift. “Serpentine” is a way to describe a roadway with lateral shifts. • Advantages: • Force motorists to slow down to navigate the bends and to pay attention to surroundings. • Useful for long, otherwise straight roads • Residential areas can tolerate greater curves; chicanes on collectors should be smoother • Disadvantages: • Motorists can potentially “squeeze” bicyclists by disregarding lane striping. Bike through-paths eliminate this issue. • Motorists can potentially cut through the center by crossing into the opposing lane • Increased maintenance costs • Effects on driveway access • Approximate Cost: ~$10,000 for three chicanes. ~$60,000-90,000 to retrofit serpentine roadway; $0 if included as part of original design. Neckout/ Bulbout/ Curb ExtensionNeckout/ Bulbout/ Curb ExtensionNeckout/ Bulbout/ Curb ExtensionNeckout/ Bulbout/ Curb Extension • Description: neckouts, bulbouts, and curb extensions are extensions of the road edge placed directly opposite each other at an intersection. • Advantages: • Increase the visibility of pedestrians to motorists • Shortens crossing distances • Allows emergency vehicles a straight route when opposing vehicles yield to the sirens • Highly aesthetically pleasing when appropriately landscaped • Disadvantages: • Isolated curb extensions have little effect on speed (they are most effective as a pedestrian treatment) • Increased landscaping maintenance • Potential sight distance issues or impacts on drainage • Approximate Cost: ~$2,000-20,000 per corner 46 ChokerChokerChokerChoker • Description: Mid-block narrowings directly opposite each other that extend into the travel lane that force motorists to slow, or even stop and yield to opposing traffic. • Advantages: • Shortens pedestrian crossings • Does not affect bicycle access when bike lane is left open • More effective during times of peak traffic or when only one travel lane is open; does not affect local access during off-peak hours • Greater speed reduction than a centerline island when used in series • Can discourage truck cut-through traffic • Adds streetscape area for signage, landscaping, etc. • Disadvantages: • Emergency response delay if motorists clog the choker or do not yield to emergency vehicles. • Potential obstacle for inattentive motorists • Sometimes requires changes to drainage patterns. • Approximate Cost: ~$5,000-20,000 Center Island/ MedianCenter Island/ MedianCenter Island/ MedianCenter Island/ Median • Description: island of raised pavers/ pavement or landscaping at the centerline of roadway; different from median barriers because they do not necessarily restrict turning movements. • Advantages: • When combined with a mid-block pedestrian crossing, increases crossing opportunities by allowing pedestrians to cross one lane at a time • Improves safety for pedestrians by making crossing areas more visible to motorists and by providing a refuge for pedestrians at the centerline. • Calms traffic by acting as a reverse choker: motorists must slow to navigate the narrowing • Disadvantages: • Not as effective at speed reduction as curb-side designs • Not as easily navigable for emergency vehicles as curb-side designs • On-street parking removal in the vicinity is necessary • Bicyclists are at risk of being squeezed by motor vehicles • Approximate Cost: ~$15,000-30,000 / 100 feet 47 Other MeasuresOther MeasuresOther MeasuresOther Measures Bike LaneBike LaneBike LaneBike Lane • Description: portions of a roadway that are striped or signed for the exclusive use of bicyclists. Bike lanes are not traffic calming devices in themselves, but if some or all of their width is taken out of existing travel lanes, then the decreased road width can have the effect of calming traffic. • Advantages: • Calms traffic by effectively narrowing the roadway and forcing motorists to remain aware of the surroundings • Use on routes where there is a large volume of bicyclists or where there is a clear risk to bicyclists • Disadvantages: • Poorly maintained bike lanes are a safety hazard to bicyclists; municipalities must commit to their upkeep • Difficulty in finding necessary right-of-way to dedicate to bicyclists • Approximate Cost: ~$5,000-50,000 / mile. Most efficient as part of street reconstruction, resurfacing, or original design. Pavement TreatmentsPavement TreatmentsPavement TreatmentsPavement Treatments • Description: Pavement treatments include cobblestones or bricks, textured pavement, colored concrete, and so on. Pavement treatments are not traffic calming tools by themselves. • Advantages: • Always combined with other measures, such as raised intersections, speed tables, and sometimes bike lanes • Use to delineate spaces, such as pedestrian space (in a raised crosswalk) or a central business district • Some textured treatments cause low rumbles and vibrations in the car, thereby reducing vehicle speeds • Other treatments work by perceptual tricks: motorists slow for bands at decreasing intervals, as it feels like they are driving faster than they are. • Disadvantages: • Can be expensive • Some treatments can create unacceptable noise pollution if poorly designed or maintained • Approximate Cost: varies, depending on labor and material costs. 48 Other StrategiesOther StrategiesOther StrategiesOther Strategies • Rumble Strips: Low bumps across the road that make noise when driven over. Can produce unacceptable noise pollution for neighbors. Potentially bothersome or dangerous for bicyclists. • Intersection Re-Alignment: Converting a T-intersection with straight approaches to one where the roads curve to eliminate straight-through vehicle movements. • “Road Diets:” Reducing the number or width of traffic lanes and road shoulders. • “Neotraditional” Street Design: Streets with narrower lanes, shorter blocks, T-intersections, and other design features to control traffic speed and volume. • Woonerven: Streets with mixed vehicle and pedestrian traffic, where motorists are required to drive at very low speeds. • Perceptual Design Features: Design features that encourage motorists to remain conscious of their driving and to be aware of their surroundings (thereby discouraging “zoned out” driving). Some perceptual design features serve specific purposes, such as: o Patterns painted onto road surfaces, such as bands at decreasing intervals approaching an intersection, can unconsciously cue a motorist to slow down; o Locating objects, such as street trees or bushes, near the roadway visually narrows the perceived width of the roadway, thereby cueing drivers to decrease speed and increase attentiveness. • Street Trees: Planting trees along a street to create a sense of enclosure and to improve the pedestrian environment. • Education and Enforcement: Educational outreach, perhaps similar to the successful anti-DUI campaign, and increased enforcement of traffic laws, including speed limits. • Gateway Treatments: Features that indicate to motorists that they are entering a special area that requires caution, such as a residential area. Gateway treatments can include planters, street trees, landscaping, transit shelters, signs, decorative fences and gates, and so on 49 Other IssuesOther IssuesOther IssuesOther Issues Traffic Calming and Emergency ResponseTraffic Calming and Emergency ResponseTraffic Calming and Emergency ResponseTraffic Calming and Emergency Response Emergency responders are often concerned about increases in response time due to traffic calming. The ITE notes that many of the streets most in need of traffic calming make ideal emergency response routes for the same reasons they need to be calmed: higher operating speed and shortcut potential.”6 Studies have shown that the delay per slow point is almost always under ten seconds, but many slow points in succession create longer delays. In general, traffic circles create longer delays than speed humps, and shorter speed humps create longer delays than longer speed humps. It is possible to reconcile emergency response and traffic calming goals. • Avoid emergency response routes and emergency facilities, where possible; • Gradually build a traffic calming program and begin with less intrusive measures to give emergency responders time to adjust their operations; • Establish open, honest communication with emergency responders and citizen groups; • Use measures that can accommodate emergency vehicles, such as a median that doesn’t extend into the travel lane. Alter the design of measures that would affect emergency response, such as using offset humps or speed cushions instead of a traditional speed hump. Offset humps, shown in the top two images at right, are staggered so an emergency vehicle can weave between them. Speed cushions, shown in the bottom two images, are dome-shaped humps that are narrow enough to be straddled by fire trucks but wide enough that cars must drive over them. Fire trucks with inner and outer wheels on the rear axle must ride up one of the humps. Still, fire-rescue units in Austin, Texas prefer speed cushions to either speed humps or speed tables. 66 Ewing, 1999 50 Design IssuesDesign IssuesDesign IssuesDesign Issues The following is a list of design issues common to most traffic calming measures described in this manual. This list is not exhaustive, so all design issues relevant to a specific project should be evaluated. • Visibility: Traffic calming measures must be clearly visible and understandable to motorists. Signage (see below), reflectors and reflective paint, and illumination enhance visibility. Another component of visibility is adequate (but not excessive) sight distances. • Signage: Advance signs should warn motorists of upcoming measures, and signs should indicate proper motorist behavior. • Streetscape Aesthetics: Aesthetically pleasing measures are far more acceptable to residents and users of the street by easily blending into the streetscape. • Design for Large Vehicles: Traffic calming should be able to accommodate the occasional large vehicle, or other emergency plans (signing alternate routes, etc) must be implemented concurrently. • Maintenance: Long-term maintenance needs must be anticipated within the traffic calming project and should be minimized to the greatest possible degree without sacrificing quality. • Parking: Many traffic calming projects eliminate on-street parking. This design consideration is more significant in urbanized areas, such as the City of Ithaca. • Purpose: A clear purpose and set of objectives must guide the selection, design, and implementation of traffic calming measures.7 Maintenance & LMaintenance & LMaintenance & LMaintenance & Longevityongevityongevityongevity Traffic calming devices, like other roadway features, require maintenance. Because of the wide variation of possible conditions on a site, it is nearly impossible to give specific maintenance costs or longevity estimates. The following are the main considerations regarding maintenance and longevity of traffic calming features. • Material: In general, asphalt is cheaper than concrete. Concrete generally lasts longer, though. Use of different materials in the same location (asphalt for the roadway, pavers for the raised crosswalk, for example) can increase maintenance costs. • Weather: Severe freeze-thaw cycles and frequent of snow plowing decrease the longevity of installations. Poorly designed and marked traffic calming features are a hazard for snow plows. • Landscaping: Some plants are more expensive and difficult to maintain. • Drainage: The drainage needs of a site have a great influence on the cost of a project. Poor drainage reduces the lifespan of a traffic calming installation. • Miscellaneous: repainting bike lanes, replacing stolen signs, etc. Some traffic calming projects have been successful because local residents have “adopted” the installation, providing landscaping and general maintenance. In the end, the goal is to strike a balance between aesthetics, functionality, and practicality. 7 “A Guidebook for Residential Traffic Management.” Washington State DOT. December 1994 51 Sources and CreditsSources and CreditsSources and CreditsSources and Credits Photograph, Drawing, and Diagram CreditsPhotograph, Drawing, and Diagram CreditsPhotograph, Drawing, and Diagram CreditsPhotograph, Drawing, and Diagram Credits Streetscape Design: Best Practices ToolboxStreetscape Design: Best Practices ToolboxStreetscape Design: Best Practices ToolboxStreetscape Design: Best Practices Toolbox Page Photo(s)/ Drawing(s) Source 3 • Outdoor “room” Campus Community Campaign www.tamu.edu/campaign/trees.html 4 • Tree-lined street • Wide, open street Center for Livable Communities “Why People Don’t Walk and What Planners Can Do About It.” http://www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Land_Use/focus/plan_to_walk.pdf 4 • Road footprint comparison Oregon Department of Transportation http://www.odot.state.or.us/techserv/bikewalk/planimag/trafcalm.htm 7 • Walkability and land use examples Center for Livable Communities “Why People Don’t Walk and What Planners Can Do About It.” http://www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Land_Use/focus/plan_to_walk.pdf 8 • Curb radii and intersection width Walk Arlington http://www.walkarlington.com/gfx/walkable/Picture8.gif 9 • Building height to road corridor width Town of Ithaca Planning Department Previously unpublished 10 • Commercial site City of Ottawa, Regional Road Corridor Design Guidelines http://www.ottawa.ca/city_services/planningzoning/design_guide/ regional_roads/e_ref_roads.pdf 12 • Tree clearance Land Use and Transportation Department, Washington County, Oregon http://www.co.washington.or.us/deptmts/lut/updates/graphics/tree.gif 16- 19 • Sample right-of-way designs Town of Ithaca Planning Department Previously unpublished Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices ToolboxBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices ToolboxBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices ToolboxBicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Design: Best Practices Toolbox Page Photo(s)/ Drawing(s) Source 23 • Streetscape drawing Oregon Department of Transportation, Facility Design Standards http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/BIKEPED/docs/bp_plan_2_ii.pdf (Figure 47) 25 • Mid-block crossing Federal Highway Administration (Planning, Environment, and Realty) http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/sidewalks/figure-4-45.jpg 25 • Count-down timer Eisen - Letunic: Transportation, Environmental, and Urban Planning http://eisenletunic.com/el_i/image_countdown.jpg 26- 29 • Sample bicycle designs 29 • Bicycle parking diagram Oregon Department of Transportation, Facility Design Standards http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/BIKEPED/docs/bp_plan_2_ii.pdf (Figure 42) 30 • Two-way bike lane Transportation Alternatives http://www.transalt.org/blueprint/images/bloop39d.gif 30 • Bike rack designs; bike rack spacing diagram Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/pdf/bikepark.pdf Traffic Calming Design: Best Practices ToolboxTraffic Calming Design: Best Practices ToolboxTraffic Calming Design: Best Practices ToolboxTraffic Calming Design: Best Practices Toolbox Page Photo(s)/ Drawing(s) Source 33 • “Traffic Calming Personal webpage, Mehras 52 Ahead” sign http://www.mehras.net/usa_pages/06_29_yosemite-tahoe- reno/07_03_03_renoe/f_07_03_03_traffic_calming_ahead_sign.JPG 37- 45 • All drawings and All drawings and All drawings and All drawings and diagramsdiagramsdiagramsdiagrams, unless otherwise noted Delaware State Department of Transportation, Traffic Calming Manual http://www.state.de.us/research/register/september2000/DelDOT %20cover%20page%20(1).htm 37- 45 • All photographsAll photographsAll photographsAll photographs, unless otherwise noted Office of Transportation, City of Portland, Oregon. Online traffic calming photo album http://www.portlandonline.com/transportation/index.cfm?c=35929 41 • Raised crosswalk photo Tech Transfer Program, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Berkeley http://www.techtransfer.berkeley.edu/newsletter/03-2/pix/6.jpg 42 • Neighborhood traffic circle/ intersection island Institute for Transportation Engineers (ITE). Online Traffic Calming Dictionary. http://www.ite.org/traffic/chicane.htm 42 • Modern roundabout Western Carolina University http://admfin.wcu.edu/capconstruction/Bonds/Infrastructure/Images/ Updates/circle.jpg 43 • Chicanes City of Austin, Texas http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/roadworks/images/chicanes.jpg 43 • Neckouts/ bulbouts/ curb extensions Active Living Resources http://www.activelivingresources.org/images/bulbout.jpg 44 • Center islands/ medians Linden Area Traffic Management http://linden.morpc.org/images/refugeisland5.jpg 45 • Bicycle lane Silicon Valley Bicycle Coalition http://www.svbcbikes.org/crank/july-aug-04/image/san-jose-bike- lane.jpg 45 • Pavement treatment (above) Wired New York http://www.wirednewyork.com/manhattan/images/cobblestone_130th _14sept03.jpg 45 • Pavement treatment (below) San Francisco Bicycle Coalition http://www.sfbike.org/images/actions/bikeplan/design/29colored.jpg 53 General ResourcesGeneral ResourcesGeneral ResourcesGeneral Resources The following are resources that were consulted in the development of these design guidelines. RightRightRightRight----ofofofof----Way DesignWay DesignWay DesignWay Design Chellman, C. Rick. “The Design of New Urbanist Streets.” Urban Land Institute. Orlando, F.L: April 2000. City of Ottawa. “Regional Road Corridor Design Guidelines.” Ottawa, Canada: date unknown. Institute of Transportation Engineers. “Improving the Pedestrian Environment Through Innovative Design.” Washington, D.C: 2005. Transportation Department, City of Bellevue. “Design Manual.” Bellevue, W.A: date unknown. Bicycle and Pedestrian IsBicycle and Pedestrian IsBicycle and Pedestrian IsBicycle and Pedestrian Issues:sues:sues:sues: Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals. “Bicycle Parking Guidelines.” Undated. Available online at <http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/pdf/bikepark.pdf>. October 13, 2006. Bicycle Advisory Committee, Charlotte-Mecklenburg area. “Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bicycle Transportation Plan.” Charlotte-Mecklenburg, N.C: July 1999. Bicycle and Pedestrian Program, Oregon Department of Transportation. Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan: An Element of the Oregon Transportation Plan. Salem, O.R: June 14, 1995. Brunswick Bicycle and Pedestrian Advisory Committee. “Brunswick Bicycle and Pedestrian Improvement Plan.” Brunswick, M.E: October 13, 1998, updated September 15, 2004. Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of Transportation. FHWA Course on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation. Georgetown Pike, McLean, V.A: date unknown. Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of Transportation. Implementing Pedestrian Improvements at the Local Level. Publication No. FHWA-98-138. Georgetown Pike, McLean, V.A: 1999. Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of Transportation. “Safety Effects of Marked vs. Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations: Executive Summary and Recommended Guidelines.” Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-075. Georgetown Pike, McLean, V.A: February 2002. Knoxville Regional Transportation Planning Organization. “2002 Knoxville Regional Bicycle Plan.” Knoxville, K.Y: 2002. Local Government Commission, Center for Livable Communities. “Why People Don’t Walk and What City Planners Can Do About It.” Sacramento, C.A: date unknown. 54 Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center and Federal Highway Administration, United States Department of Transportation. How to Develop a Pedestrian Safety Action Plan. Publication No. FHWA- SA-05-12, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: February 2006. Pedestrian Transportation Program, Office of Engineering and Development, City of Portland. “Portland Pedestrian Design Guide.” Element of the Pedestrian Master Plan for the City of Portland, Oregon. Portland, O.R: 1998. Traffic Calming:Traffic Calming:Traffic Calming:Traffic Calming: Burden, Dan. “Twenty-Two Benefits of Urban Street Trees.” Glatting Jackson and Walkable Communities, Inc: May 2006. City of Sarasota Engineering Department. “Traffic Calming Manual.” Sarasota, F.L: September 2003. DOWL Engineers. “Traffic Calming Protocol Manual.” Prepared for the Municipality of Anchorage. Anchorage, A.K: March 2001. Ewing, Reid. Traffic Calming: State of the Practice. Institute for Transportation Engineers and Federal Highway Administration. 1999. Fehr & Peers Associates, Inc. “Program Development and Pilot Project for the City of Ithaca Citywide Traffic Calming Program.” Working Paper #1, prepared for the City of Ithaca. Ithaca, N.Y: April 14, 2000. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. “Traffic Calming: Roadway Design to Reduce Traffic Speeds and Volumes.” TDM Encyclopedia. June 4, 2004. <http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm4.htm>