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Home My WebLink AboutTown of Lansing Natural Resources Inventory 2021Town of Lansing Natural Resources Inventory Compiled by Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County Town of Lansing Natural Resources Inventory Compiled by Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This document is a Town of Lansing-specific, adapted, revised, and updated version of the Tompkins County Natural Resources Inventory (2001) with new sections added, used with per- mission from the Tompkins County Planning Department. The inventory was prepared by the Town of Lansing Conservation Advisory Council as well as the Cornell University Department of City and Regional Planning, and was coordinated by Osamu Tsuda, Climate Smart Communities Specialist at Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County under the advisement of Terry Carroll (Southern Tier NYSERDA Clean Energy Communities Coordinator, Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County). C.J. Randall, Lansing Town Planner, and the Tompkins County Planning Department provided additional assistance. Theodora Weatherby, Energy Educator at Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County created and edited the final graphics of this document. Town of Lansing Conservation Advisory Council Andra Benson, Liaison to Town Board Robyn Bailey Tom Butler, Liaison to Planning Board Karen Edelstein John Fleming John Greenly Carrie Koplinka-Loehr Todd Walter David Wolfe v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents................................................................................................................. v Introduction........................................................................................................................ 1 Background on the Town of Lansing....................................................................... 2 What is a Natural Resource Inventory?.................................................................... 2 Why Should Natural Resources be Protected?........................................................ 3 How Can Natural Resources be Protected?............................................................. 3 Non-Regulatory Tools............................................................................................... 3 Regulatory Tools....................................................................................................... 4 About the Organization of this Natural Resource Inventory.................................... 4 About the Data........................................................................................................ 4 Climate Change................................................................................................................... 7 What is Climate Change?........................................................................................ 8 Why is Understanding Climate Change Important?................................................ 8 Recent and Projected Future Climate Change......................................................... 8 Resources and References.................................................................................... 13 Hydrology.......................................................................................................................... 14 Water Bodies.......................................................................................................... 15 Watersheds............................................................................................................ 21 Wetlands................................................................................................................ 27 Flood Hazard Areas................................................................................................ 33 Aquifers.................................................................................................................. 40 Geology and Soils.............................................................................................................. 43 Slope and Topography............................................................................................ 44 Bedrock Geology.................................................................................................... 49 Surficial Geology..................................................................................................... 52 Soils........................................................................................................................ 55 Land Use and Protected Lands.......................................................................................... 62 Land Use and Land Covers..................................................................................... 63 Natural Heritage Sites............................................................................................ 66 Unique Natural Areas............................................................................................. 67 Protected Open Space............................................................................................ 73 Implementation Tools....................................................................................................... 76 Land Evaluation................................................................................................................. 77 vi Executive Summary The Town of Lansing’s Natural Resources Inventory (NRI) is designed as a source of information on the ecological and economic value of natural resource assets within the Town of Lansing, New York, to facilitate future planning, development, and conservation efforts. The NRI may guide community members and municipal officials toward a more sustainable and resilient future as they seek to balance economic development with protection of natural areas and resources. The document is much more than a simple inventory; it provides detailed explanations of the ecosystem services provided by our natural areas and resources: sustainable food production; a clean water supply; flood control; soil conservation; habitat supporting wildlife and biodiver- sity; and safe and abundant outdoor recreation opportunities. Useful websites, resources, and scientific literature are cited throughout the text, and most sections include tables, graphs, and abundant maps to help clarify the text. The NRI also lays out explicit mechanisms for pro- tecting natural resources, from non-regulatory tools such as land acquisition and education, to regulatory tools such as zoning designations, park dedications, and buffer requirements. Throughout the document the collaborations and boundaries between Town actions and those of county, state, and federal agencies are explained. Climate Change An early section of the NRI focuses on climate change, which is recognized as an overarching environmental challenge to sustainable development and protection of natural resources with- in our region. This section provides detailed information on recent historical changes in our weather patterns, as well as future climate projections. In addition to an increased frequen- cy of heat stress days, other key changes we are already experiencing include an increased frequency of high rainfall events and wetter springs and falls leading to flooding, as well as the threat of too little water in summer when most needed by crops and natural vegetation. Climate models project these challenges are likely to become more pronounced during the next few decades. The observed and projected impacts on natural areas, waterways, fisheries, and farms in our region are discussed. Most importantly, this section provides many specific “adaptation” strategies for both managed and natural ecosystems to cope with some inevita- ble climate change, as well as “mitigation” strategies for slowing the pace of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions or capturing and storing carbon in vegetation and soils. The climate change topic is also woven throughout the other sections of the NRI where appro- priate. Hydrology The hydrology section of the NRI includes data and maps to describe and locate the Town in relation to the eastern Cayuga Lake watershed region, and the major water bodies (e.g., Ca- yuga Lake, Salmon Creek, and Gulf Creek), culverts, aquifers, wetlands, and flood hazard areas vii within the Town boundaries. Each of these are discussed in terms of their importance for overall water management and flood control, meeting the safe drinking water needs of the population, recreational value, importance for supporting healthy and diverse wildlife and fishery populations, and vulnerability to climate change. The recent issue of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) in Cayuga Lake is discussed in relation to nutrient loading from land surfaces into the lake, and how climate change (heavy rain events) may be exacerbating this problem. Strategies for stormwater manage- ment and other specific adaptations for a changing climate are elucidated. The various agencies involved in regulation and monitoring of the Town’s water resources are also discussed in terms of their role in decisions regarding development and protection of water resources. Geology and Soils The geology and soils section of the NRI identifies and provides maps and a brief description of the dominant soil types in relation to drainage capacity, and optimal land use. The topography of the region is discussed in relation to erodibility of soils, as well as water, sediment, and nutrient flow into waterways during rain and snowmelt events. Bedrock geology and major land features such as gorges are also discussed. Land Use and Land Cover This section provides current baseline land use and land cover maps for the Town, along with links to other sources of information that will be important when making decisions about proposed land uses, development suitability, and comprehensive planning. The section points out that both natu- ral and managed land cover vegetation may gradually shift with climate change. Maintaining vege- tation and minimizing soil disturbance will be increasingly important with climate change to avoid soil erosion, sedimentation and contamination of waterways, and flooding. Currently, the major land uses within the Town, based on percent of total land area are agriculture (39.1%), followed by natural vegetation (35.6%), and residential areas (12.6%) (Table 10). Unique Natural Areas Unique Natural Areas (UNAs) are sites with outstanding environmental qualities, as defined by the Tompkins County Environmental Management Council (EMC), that are deserving of special attention for preservation and protection. UNAs include such natural features as gorges, woods, swamps, fens, cliffs, and streams. They lie on both publicly and privately-owned lands. At least one of five criteria must be met to classify an area as a UNA: (1) important natural community; (2) quality as a representative example; (3) rare or scarce plants or animals; (4) geological importance; (5) aesthetic/cultural qualities. (Each of these is described in more detail in the NRI). The EMC feels strongly that the UNA inventory is an important tool for both planning and land owner education. Inclusion in the UNA inventory does not carry regulatory weight, but does serve to advise the Town Board, Planning Board, and Zoning Board of Appeals on matters related to envi- ronment. The EMC has a protocol for adding or delisting sites, based on changing conditions. viii Within the Town of Lansing, nearly 4,400 acres are currently included in designated UNAs, correspond- ing to approximately 10% of the Town. All the UNAs within the Town are listed in Table 11 of the NRI, and several are briefly described. A few examples include: • Salmon Creek Woods (UNA-2) is nearly 800 acres and one of the largest UNAs in Tompkins County. The large expanse of intact and biologically diverse mature forest provides important habitat for a wide variety of neotropical migratory songbirds. The creek is also an important fishery in the area. • Ludlowville Woods (UNA-28) includes the beloved waterfall at Ludlowville Park, a feature that has cultural, historical, recreational, and geological significance. Rare and unusual plants and geological features are found among the numerous steep ravines that flow into Salmon Creek. A DEC fishing access spot is also part of this UNA. • Esty’s Glen (UNA-90) includes old-growth forest, unique geological features such as gorges, falls, and cliffs, and rare plants. Exceptional views also distinguish this UNA. Protected Open Space Nature preserves, conservation easements, and state lands protect important landscapes from devel- opment and uses that may damage their natural features, such as key plant and animal species and their habitats, water bodies or waterways, and recreational value. They can also buffer the region from flood damage, and add economic value by providing recreation, enhancing tourism, and land values. Although municipal governments do not have direct control of these lands, they may be useful in plan- ning for greenways, migratory corridors, and recreation trails. There are three conservation easements in the Town of Lansing that will protect an area near Cayuga Lake from future subdivision and devel- opment, and a 6+ acre wetland in the northeast protected through the Wetland Reserve Program. In addition, the Finger Lakes Land Trust manages the 33 acre Salmon Creek Bird Sanctuary with a diverse forest habitat. Land Evaluation This section provides a brief overview of the main activities involved in evaluating land areas for possi- ble protection. It also describes and provides the pros and cons of several options to move forward with preserving or protecting selected parcels: (1) transfer or purchase of development rights; (2) conserva- tion easements (government, private, or conservation group acquisition); (3) Zoning; (4) Payment-in-lieu of or recreational fees. Concluding Remarks This NRI highlights the Town of Lansing’s rich natural resources, diverse land use, and conservation efforts to protect our farms, open spaces, and unique natural areas that provide important ecosystem services for the Lansing region and beyond. The NRI’s usefulness for future planning decisions requires that it be treated as a “living” document, with periodic updates as new information and needs arise. Additions and supplements are already underway, such as an Open Space Index, and a Scenic Resources Inventory of the region that will include photos and GPS coordinates. ix INTRODUCTION 2 Background on the Town of Lansing The Town of Lansing is located in Tompkins County along the southeastern side of Cayuga Lake. Although the municipality’s general characteristics are relatively rural and sparsely populated, population density varies from North Lansing, which is relatively rural and undeveloped, to the south to the Village of Lansing, which is significantly more urbanized than the rest of the town- ship. As a municipality that is also in close proximity to the City of Ithaca and Cornell University, the Town of Lansing has significantly changed over time with the development and expansion of the Ithaca Mall and continuous urban sprawl, particularly in the Village of Lansing and its sur- rounding regions. With increasing extreme weather events, the Town has been susceptible to flash floods and oth- er environmental hazards that have led to threatened natural resources in parts of the munici- pality. In an effort to help identify the Town’s existing natural resources, the Lansing Conserva- tion Advisory Council created this Natural Resource Inventory to better understand the existing natural resources within the Town of Lansing and to address some of the growing concerns around the effects of climate change. What is a Natural Resource Inventory? In the simplest form, a Natural Resource Inventory (NRI) is a compilation of existing natural/ ecological resources, according to the New York State Department of Environmental Conserva- tion’s Hudson River Estuary Program. Depending on the community, an NRI could also include historic resources. Often, the scope and level of detail is determined by the community prepar- ing the document. While the simplest version is just a list of existing resources, the more com- plex NRIs could include detailed analysis of each existing resource. The primary purpose of an NRI is to act as an informational source to community members and municipal officials. The sec- ondary purpose of the document is to provide the building blocks for natural resource aware- ness in the local and regional comprehensive plans as well as building and zoning regulations. In other words, the NRI acts as a regional atlas that could be used when updating or developing local regulations. As the Town of Lansing continues to experience population growth and the resulting urban sprawl, the municipality will need to prioritize regions that are identified or designated as valuable assets and resources in this inventory, and then plan development in a way that would mitigate any negative effect on those specific areas. The Town is looking to make its commu- nity more resilient and sustainable long term, and this natural resource inventory can provide fact-based information on ecologically and environmentally valuable assets and facilitate future planning, development, and conservation efforts. This inventory can also supplement existing plans, such as the Town’s 2018 Comprehensive Plan, as well as larger regional plans, such as the Cayuga Lake Watershed Plan and the Tompkins County All Hazard Mitigation Plan. Finally, the in- ventory can act as a stepping-stone for the Town to develop additional planning tools and tech- nical resources that can help guide the community to a more sustainable and resilient future. 3 Why Should Natural Resources be Protected? Protecting environmental quality is a matter of choices and tradeoffs. Continued development in the midst of climate change poses higher risks and threats to existing ecological and environ- mental resources. There may be unintended negative consequences from this pressure, includ- ing wildlife displacement, loss of recreation corridors and scenic vistas, surface and groundwater contamination, increased pervasiveness of invasive species, and increased erosion and flooding. The Town of Lansing must determine where development should take place, what the environ- mental impacts of this development will be, whether these impacts are worth the result, and whether there are alternative and less harmful ways to develop. This document can serve as a fact-based guide for the municipality and developers to consider the answers to these ques- tions. Because most development and land use change is irreversible, detailed planning is very important. Long-term planning is one way to minimize the short-term exploitation of resources resulting from “quick fixes” to localized problems and from competition for resources. Planning at the local, regional, and state levels provides individual municipalities with a rational system for guiding development with respect to the distribution and value of natural resources. How Can Natural Resources be Protected? This natural resource inventory identifies many of the existing natural resources within the Town. This identification process is the first step in protecting these resources. Private landown- ers, government agencies, and conservation organizations can use this knowledge to protect the most important of these resources. There are several major approaches to protecting natural resources. The following is a list of some options that municipalities in Upstate New York currently use. Non-Regulatory Tools Acquisition Acquisition with the goal of resource preservation is the surest way of protecting natural re- sources. Informal Designations Planning efforts can raise local awareness of the value and location of important natural re- sources. Goals for protecting natural resources can be defined in a community’s comprehensive plan. Natural resource protection can also be addressed in open space and recreation plans or in plans for a particular resource, such as a watershed protection plan. Educational Programs Environmental education programs are another way to help raise awareness around the impor- tance of natural resources and interest in protecting these valuable community treasures. The Tompkins County Cooperative Extension Primitive Pursuits program, for example, educates chil- dren of all ages about nature, the importance of conservation, and living with the natural world. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology is another institution that offers educational programs about wildlife in Tompkins County and the Finger Lakes region. Being in close proximity to Cornell and 4 Ithaca gives Lansing the ability to take advantage of such programs that can help spread aware- ness about the value of local natural resources and the importance of conservation and smart planning. Regulatory Tools There are also many regulatory tools available to local municipalities to control land use. Details about these tools are provided on page 91. (Not all of them may match the Town’s current goals or capacity.) These specific regulatory techniques for protecting resources include: • Zoning and Subdivision Ordinances – used to protect the public health, safety, and gen- eral welfare. • Local Wetlands Ordinances – regulate disturbance of wetlands beyond those covered under state and federal laws, such as small or isolated wetlands, and can add additional requirements for activities adjacent to wetlands. • Buffer Requirements – establish minimum distances between a development and a selected natural feature. • Clustering Requirements – place residential units on a portion of a site to protect a con- tiguous area of open space or unique feature. • Performance Zoning – unlike traditional zoning, performance zoning determines wheth- er a land use is permitted based on an assessment of potential impacts. • Preservation Overlay Zones – geographic areas where more restrictive development regulations are enforced to protect valued natural resources. • Park Dedications – require developers to contribute land, or cash in lieu of land, to pro- vide for the open space and recreation needs of the subdivision’s residents. • Transfer of Development Rights – landowners in designated preservation areas may sell development rights to allow increased density in other areas of the community. • Purchase of Development Rights – landowners in designated preservation areas may sell development rights for cash to a government or appropriate organization. About the Organization of this Natural Resource Inventory The Town of Lansing Natural Resource Inventory begins with a summary of climate conditions and projections for the Town and Tompkins County. The rest of the inventory is organized into three resource categories: hydrology and aquatic ecosystems, geology and soils, and land use and protected lands. An addition, titled “Implementation Tools,” lists potential methods for preserving existing resources. About the Data The data used in this natural resource inventory are primarily from the Tompkins County Plan- ning Department, Town of Lansing Planning Department, Cornell University Geospatial Informa- tion Repository (CUGIR), and the New York State GIS Clearinghouse. The Tompkins County Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD) developed and provided data on stormwater mapping. Other resources used throughout this document are from the US Geological Survey, US Depart- 5 ment of Agriculture Geospatial Data Clearinghouse, as well as the US Army Corps of Engineers. Cornell University’s Department of City and Regional Planning, the Lansing Conservation Advisory Council, and Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County analyzed the data. Questions or concerns regarding the content of this document can be directed to any of these three entities. Map 1: Boundaries of the Town of Lansing within Tompkins County. 6 CLIMATE CHANGE 8 What is Climate Change? Climate change refers to the fundamental long-term meteorological characteristics defining where we live, including seasonal weather patterns that determine the species composition of our natural landscapes and waterways, and what plants we can grow on our farms and gar- dens. Although humans have always had to cope with day to day ups and downs in the weath- er, we have for the most part been able to consider the climate relatively stable. Most exam- ples of climate change that have occurred during the long 4.5-billion-year history of our planet have taken place over tens of thousands or millions of years. Since the mid-20th century, how- ever, the planet has been warming and rainfall patterns changing at an unprecedented pace, and within our lifetime. This has largely been attributed to the burning of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, and natural gas) and other human activities that have increased the level of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. The climate has become a moving target, and the “new normal” is undefined. Unlike previous generations, we cannot rely on historical weather patterns of the past to inform our management decisions today. Why is Understanding Climate Change Important? The rapid change in climate we are experiencing today adds new uncertainty and complexi- ty to decisions regarding natural resource management and farming. It is important that we identify and adopt climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies so that essential “eco- system services” are maintained, such as: sustainable food production; a clean water supply; flood control; soil conservation; control of invasive species; preservation of biodiversity in our natural areas; and safe and abundant outdoor recreation opportunities. Recent and Projected Future Climate Change Today, the evidence that climate change is already upon us is well documented, and is based in part on local and global data from networks of temperature and rainfall sensors, satellite imag- ery, and instruments that monitor the atmospheric concentration of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Temperature, heat stress, and frost-free period The annual average warming across New York State since 1900 has been +2.7˚ F, which is greater than the global average temperature increase of about +1.8˚ F (Horton et al. 2014). Of more importance to the living world than average temperatures is the frequency of tempera- tures exceeding or falling below thresholds important to biological processes. For example, across New York, as well as much of the Northeastern U.S., since the 1960s there has been a trend for an increase in the frequency of days above 90˚ or 95˚ F. As indicated in Table 1, this trend for increased frequency of heat stress days and heat waves is projected to increase sub- stantially throughout this century. Another threshold temperature trend of interest is a decline in the frequency of days at or below 32˚ F (Table 1), indicating a longer frost-free period and earlier springs, which is important for cold-sensitive plant, insect, and animal species. Flooding, drought, and snow cover days Unlike some regions that have experienced significant declines in annual rainfall in the past 9 100 years, across New York there has been a modest increase since 1900. The seasonal and year-to-year variability has increased, however, particularly since the 1950s (Horton et al. 2014). A particularly worrisome trend is more than a 70% increase in the number of extreme rainfall events (e.g., more than 2 inches in 24 hours), since the 1950s (Fig 1). In the future, average an- nual precipitation in the Southern Tier region of New York is projected to continue to increase, as will the number and intensity of extreme rainfall events (Table 1). This can lead to flash flood- ing, and risk of soil erosion and runoff of agricultural chemicals into waterways. While too much water will be a concern in the future, the threat of summer drought is also likely to increase (Hayhoe et al. 2007). Most of the increase in precipita- tion in New York is projected to occur in the winter and spring, with less precip- itation in summer or fall. This seasonal variation is likely to result in a situation with increased flooding risk in winter and spring, followed by increased drought risk in the summer, particularly with warmer summer temperatures and a longer frost- free period increasing water use by crops and natural vegetation. An example of what may occur more often in the future was the record-breaking 2016 summer drought in western New York, where farmers suffered severe crop yield losses due to dried up streams and wells, and inadequate irrigation capacity (Sweet et al. 2017) More of our winter precipitation is projected to occur as cold rain rather than snow. We have already experienced about an 8-day decline in the number of snow cover days in New York and this trend is likely to continue (Hayhoe et al. 2007). This can have negative effects not only on winter recreation, but also on wildlife and vegetation. To avoid facing the worst of these climate change projections, we can take measures to address them through either “adaptation”—changing our practices to cope with some inevitable cli- mate change; and/or “mitigation”— attempting to slow the pace of climate change. Mitigation can involve reducing our greenhouse gas emissions, or capturing and storing carbon in vegeta- tion and soils, carbon that otherwise would be in the air as the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide. These two approaches are discussed below for natural areas and agriculture. Climate change impacts and adaptation for natural areas Within the next several decades we are likely to see significant shifts in species composition of our natural areas and aquatic habitats in our region as some species are able to adapt or Figure 1: Percent increase (1958-2010) in heavy precipita- tion events (designated as >2 inch/24 hr for the Northeast). Excerpted from Kunkel et al. 2013. 10 Baseline 2020s 2050s 2080s Temperature 47.5°F +1.8 to 3.8°F +3.6 to 7.1°F +4.2 to 11.6°F Precipitation 35 inches -4 to +9%+2 to +15%+3 to +16% # of days per year with maximum temperature exceeding 90°F 10 15 to 23 22 to 47 28 to 79 95°F 1 2 to 7 2 to 18 4 to 38 Heatwaves # per year 1 2 to 3 3 to 6 3 to 9 Average duration (days)4 4 to 5 5 5 to 7 # of days per year with temperatures at or below freezing (32°F) 152 119 to 134 94 to 120 72 to 116 # of days per year with rainfall exceeding 1 inch 6 6 to 7 6 to 8 6 to 8 2 inches 0.6 0.6 to 1 0.7 to 1 0.7 to 1 thrive, while others are out-competed, migrate to other regions, or do not survive. For example, climate change will favor the continued northward expansion of some invasive species into our region, such as the notorious aggressive weed, kudzu, and the aphid-like insect pest, hemlock wooly adelgid, which has already devastated hemlock stands to the south. White-tailed deer will benefit from warmer winters and more vegetation exposed and consumed during win- ter because of less snow cover, with potential negative effects on natural plant communities, urban landscapes, and croplands. Warm-adapted fish species such as bass may benefit, while cold-adapted species such as trout will have a shrinking habitat within deeper cooler waters. (For more information, see the Ecosystems chapter of the NYS ClimAID report [Wolfe et al. 2011a]). The emerging threat of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in Cayuga Lake may be exacerbated by increasing lake water temperatures, and increased nutrient loading into the lake by increased frequency of high rainfall events. An overarching concern is that while ecosystems are dis-assembling and re-assembling in new ways, aggressive invasives that thrive in the changing climate dominate, and thereby reduce biodiversity and some important ecosystem services. The vegetation and root systems of forests and grasslands play an important role in stabilizing soils, and so degradation of these natural areas could lead to significant increases in soil erosion and runoff into waterways and water quality. Several key adaptation strategies (from Wolfe et al. 2011a): • Maintain healthy ecosystems more tolerant or better able to adapt to climate change by minimizing other stressors (e.g., invasive species, habitat fragmentation) Table 1: Baseline and projected changes in climate conditions and severe weather events in the Southern Tier of New York. Table excerpted from: NYSDEC (2015). Observed and Projected Climate Change in New York State: An Overview 11 • Manage primarily for important ecosystem services and biodiversity rather than attempt- ing to maintain indefinitely the exact mix of species present today if some of them are not capable of adapting to the changing climate • Facilitate natural adaptation to climate change by minimizing habitat fragmentation and protecting stream (riparian) zones and other avenues for dispersal and migration of spe- cies adjusting to changes in the climate • Develop reliable indicators of climate change impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem ser- vices, and cost-effective strategies for monitoring • Institutionalize a comprehensive monitoring effort to track species range shifts and to track indicators of ecosystem response to climate change • Develop cost-effective management interventions to reduce vulnerability of high priori- ty species and communities, and determine minimum area needed to maintain specific high-value threatened ecosystems Climate change impacts and adaptation for agriculture Climate change may both exacerbate the vulnerabilities and open up new opportunities for farming in our region. Among the opportunities are double-cropping and new crop options that may come with warmer temperatures and a longer frost-free period. However, prolonged peri- ods of spring rains in recent years have sometimes delayed planting and offset the potentially beneficial longer frost-free period. Water management will be a serious challenge for Northeast farmers in the future, including those in the Lansing region. Scientists project increased frequency of heavy rainfall events and more frequent summer water deficits than this historically humid region has experienced in the past. Adaptations to increase resilience to such changes include: expanded irrigation capaci- ty; modernized water monitoring and irrigation scheduling; farm drainage systems that collect excess rain into ponds for use as a water source during dry periods; and improved soil water holding capacity and drainage. The projected increases in summer heat stress can negatively affect not only crop yields and quantity, but can also reduce milk production by dairy cows. Improved barn ventilation and cool- ing capacity, and increasing water availability and adjusting diet are recommended adaptations. Among the greatest vulnerabilities over the next several decades for the economically important New York apple and grape industry is an extended period of vulnerability to spring frost risk as- sociated with more variable and warmer winter and late spring temperatures causing premature bloom. Improved real-time frost warning systems, careful site selection for new plantings, and use of misting, wind machine, or other frost protection measures will be important adaptation strategies. Another issue for grape growers has been increased risk of fall bunch rot just before harvest due to wetter fall conditions. Cluster thinning, or leaf removal near the clusters for bet- ter air movement are strategies being investigated. Increased weed and pest pressure associated with longer growing seasons and warmer winters is a widespread and increasingly important challenge for most farmers. Proactive development of nonchemical control strategies, improved regional monitoring, and rapid-response plans for 12 targeted control of invasive weeds and pests will be necessary. See Wolfe et al. (2018) for a review of agricultural adaptations for a changing climate. Mitigation strategies for natural areas Forests store huge amounts of carbon in their above- and below-ground biomass, carbon that otherwise would be in the air as carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) if these forests are burned or left to decompose. Perennial grasslands typically have deep, thick root systems that also store carbon and help stabilize soils. Avoiding deforestation and grassland disturbance is thus an important component of any regional strategy to mitigate (slow the pace of) climate change. Expanding forest area, such as through afforestation, including tree planting in urban areas, is also an important mitigation strategy. Commercial forest management for timber harvest or for biofuel to replace non-renewable fossil fuels can be part of a mitigation strategy if combined with a reforestation program and carried out in a sustainable manner without use of energy-in- tensive inputs to produce the forest products. Mitigation strategies for agriculture Many mitigation options for agriculture can be a win-win for farmers—increasing farm profit margins and improving resilience to drought and flooding while reducing greenhouse gas emis- sions and/or increasing soil carbon storage. Most farmers have a profit motive for improving energy efficiency of their operations, and for exploring alternatives to traditional fossil fuels, such as wind, solar, and biofuel crops. Improving nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency cuts labor and fertilizer costs while reducing the risk of nitrate (NO3) leaching into waterways; it also decreases the release of nitrous oxide (N2O), a very potent greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. For dairy farmers, improved manure management and/or use of anaerobic digesters can re- duce emission of methane, another potent greenhouse gas. The dairy cows themselves, like all ruminant animals, release methane as part of their normal digestive process, but some feeding strategies can reduce these emissions. To summarize, key strategies include the following (Wolfe et al. 2011(b)): • Improve energy efficiency and minimize use of synthetic fertilizers and other energy-in- tensive inputs, to lower costs and reduce carbon dioxide emissions • Explore renewable energy options, such as biofuel crops, biogas capture from manure waste, wind turbines, and solar • Enhance ruminant animal digestion efficiency to reduce methane emissions. • Improve manure handling and storage to reduce methane and carbon dioxide emissions. • Improve nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency to reduce nitrous oxide emissions, and use or- ganic sources of nitrogen such as legume rotation crops and manure when possible. • Build up soil organic matter, increasing soil carbon sequestration, to improve soil health and crop productivity through the use of winter cover crops, composts and other organic matter amendments, and reducing tillage. 13 Resources and References (see also climate links at: http://www.nrcc.cornell.edu/climate/resources/resources.html) Hayhoe K, C Wake, T Huntington et al. 2007. Past and future changes in climate and hydrological indicators in the US Northeast. Climate Dynamics 28:381-407. Horton R, D Bader, C Rosenzweig, A Degaetano, W Solecki. 2014. Climate change in New York: Updating the 2011 ClimAID Climate Risk Information. New York State Energy Research and De- velopment Authority (NYSERDA), Albany, NY. Kunkel KE, L Stevens, L Sun et al. 2013. Part 1. Climate of the Northeast U.S. NOAA technical report NESDIS 142-1. NOAA, Washington, D.C. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC). 2015. Observed and Projected Climate Change in New York State: An Overview http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/admin- istration_pdf/climbkgncrra.pdf Sweet S, D Wolfe, A DeGaetano. R Benner. 2017. Anatomy of the 2016 drought in the Northeast- ern United States: Implications for agriculture and water resources in humid climates. Agricul- tural and Forest Meteorology 247: 571-581. Wolfe DW, A DeGaetano, G Peck, M Carey, L Ziska, J Lea-Cox, A Kemanian, M Hoffmann, D Hollinger. 2018. Unique challenges and opportunities for Northeastern U.S. crop production in a changing climate. Climatic Change 146: 231-245 Wolfe DW, J Comstock, H Menninger, D Weinstein, K Sullivan, C Kraft, B Chabot, P Curtis, R Leichenko, P Vancura. 2011(a). Chap. 6: Ecosystems. IN: Rosenzweig C, W. Solecki, A DeGaetano et al. (eds.) Responding to Climate Change in New York State. pp. 163-216. New York Academy of Sciences. Blackwell Pub., Boston, MA. Wolfe DW, J Beem-Miller, A Chatrchyan, L Chambliss. 2011(b). Farm Energy, Carbon, and Green- house Gases. Cornell Cooperative Extension Climate Change Program Work Team fact sheet. 4 pages. SECTION 1: HYDROLOGY 15 WATER BODIES Why Are Water Bodies Important? Land use (i.e., the commercial, industrial, agricultural, and/or residential activities a land area can support) throughout an area and the availability of reliable water sources are directly relat- ed. In fact, land use is often determined by the availability and reliability of water supplies, and land use is a key determinant of the quality, quantity, and availability of local water resources. Therefore, it is crucial for municipalities to properly maintain and protect these resources for both human and environmental health. Notable water bodies in the Town of Lansing include Cayuga Lake, Salmon Creek, and Gulf Creek. How Are Water Bodies Regulated? Federal and state agencies, such as the New York State Department of Environmental Conser- vation (NYSDEC) and United States Army Corps of Engineers (Army Corps), require permits for activities that might affect or disturb a water body and/or its banks. The stringency of these permits corresponds with the DEC classification assigned to the water body (see Table 2) and may range from a general, or unified, permit to a permit tailored to the specific site and type of work conducted. Regulated activities might include streambank maintenance, construction, flood protection and mitigation, dredging, placing fill, and certain agricultural practices. Commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities that discharge to a water body require a State Pollution Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) permit. This permit is required for a broad range of activities, including the discharge of wastewater, storm water, or chemical and thermal emis- sions from municipal treatment plants, industrial plants, utilities, large subdivisions, apartment complexes, and confined animal feeding operations. Prior to conducting stream-related work or discharging wastewater, the Region 7 Office of the DEC or the Army Corps Buffalo District should be contacted to obtain the necessary approvals and permits. Each of these agencies will automatically forward permit applications to the other, and each agency will contact the applicant if additional permits and/or paperwork are needed. Cayuga Lake Flood Control and Climate Change Water levels of Cayuga Lake are under the jurisdiction of the New York Canal Corporation, and are typically managed by the degree of opening or closing of Mud Lock at the north end of the Lake. It is important that this control system take into account the recent and projected climate change trends indicating a significant increase in the frequency of extreme rainfall events (de- fined as > 2 inches in 24 hrs in our region), and a slight to modest increase in winter and spring rainfall (see Climate Change section of this report). The typical pattern of Cayuga Lake level con- trol is that during winter, levels are brought down to prepare for snow melt in the spring when large amounts of water enter the lake through streams and culverts. The lake level is typically brought up again in April and maintained at higher level thereafter to allow for boat access to docks and other uses in summer. In April and May of 2020, Cayuga Lake reached flood stage (http://www.canals.ny.gov/waterlevels/netdata/cayuga-levels.pdf) causing shoreline damage in some areas, which indicates a potential risk that may increase in the future. The cause of the flooding in April 2020 was primarily associated with a rainy period and a single heavy precipita- 16 tion event (> 2 inches in 24 hrs) over much of the watershed (as opposed to sudden snow melt) that occurred after raising of the lake level for the summer season had begun. The flooding could not be relieved by opening Mud Lock because that would increase flow into the Seneca River and increase flooding downstream, particularly the vulnerable Ontario Lake shoreline. Strategies to avoid this sort of risk in the future should be explored by the New York Canal Cor- poration, with input from affected communities such as Lansing, and local agencies such as the Cayuga County Water Quality Management Agency (http://cayugacountywater.org). How Are Water Bodies Classified? The DEC has assigned most water bodies within the state a letter based on their existing or expected “best use.” The most pristine waters are assigned a classification of AA, while the most degraded waters are assigned a classification of D. Additional classifications of “T” or “TS” can be added if a water body has sufficient amounts of dissolved oxygen to support trout and trout spawning. Table 2 details these classifications. AA Drinking (after chlorination) A Drinking (after chlorination and filtration) B Bathing C (T), C(TS)Fishing (trout), Fishing (trout, trout spawning) C Fishing D Secondary contact recreation Fish resources are a key factor in determining water body classifications because they are high on the food chain in aquatic habitats. As such, fish may be used as an indicator of the overall quality of an aquatic ecosystem. Some fish are highly vulnerable, both directly and indirectly, to changes in their environment. They can be directly affected by physical and chemical changes in the water and indirectly affected when changes in the environment alter their food sources or the temperature and turbidity of their habitat. Water Bodies in Municipality Water bodies that are designated as “C (T)” or higher (i.e., “C (TS)”, “B”, or “A”) are collectively referred to as “protected streams” and are subject to additional regulations. All major lakes and creeks in the Town of Lansing are classified as C or better, and a few are classified highly enough to be designated as protected streams due to their importance as drinking water supplies or fish habitat. A NYS Protection of Waters Permit is necessary for the disturbance of the bed or banks of a protected stream and for the excavation of or the placement of fill in protected streams and their adjacent and contiguous marshes and wetlands. Most of Cayuga Lake is classified as being suitable for use as a drinking water supply (Class AA(T), A(T), or A); a small portion of the lake at the northern/outlet end is Class B(T). Table 3 lists the classifications of some of the major water bodies in the Town of Lansing. Table 2: Classification of fresh surface waters as determined by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 17 Town of Lansing Water Bodies Classification Cayuga Lake AA(T), A(T), or A Salmon Creek C (TS) Gulf Creek C Reasons to Protect There are many clear benefits to protecting water bodies and their surrounding banks/riparian buffers. In the face of constantly changing climate conditions, it is important to understand the critical role of natural water networks and how they can enhance a community. The following is intended as an incentive to encourage preservation and protection, and thus increase the com- munity’s resilience to future climate-related events. Water bodies and their surroundings are fragile and can easily be affected by modifications to their structure. According to the Climate Impact Lab, the average temperature in New York State is projected to increase by 10 degrees (F) over the next 100 years. While Upstate New York might not have to worry much about sea level rise, the significant increase in temperature would not only trigger increasingly fluctuant weather patterns, but also higher intensity precip- itation. These extreme weather patterns are already becoming apparent throughout Upstate New York: there has been a noticeable increase in precipitation every decade since 1960, with an overall increase of 5 to 10% (Climate Impact Lab (2020). Climate Impact Map. Retrieved from http://www.impactlab.org/map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=1981-2010&gmeas=absolute&g- year=1986-2005). A study conducted by the NYSDEC and Delaware County Soil and Water Conservation District shows that any stream disturbance/modification can eventually lead to heavy erosion both upstream and downstream and thus cause flooding that could have otherwise been avoided (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d.). New York State Environmen- tal Excellence Award Case Study. Retrieved from https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/permits_ej_op- erations_pdf/eeadelcosoil.pdf). Disturbances and modifications include streambed sediment clearing, removal of vegetation along the stream bank, artificial changes in stream shape or size, and many others. Thus, as communities can expect increased flooding events in the near future, it is important to understand how flooding can easily overwhelm any natural infrastructure that has been disturbed by human activity. While updating and improving infrastructure can help increase a community’s safety, preserving water bodies and their surroundings—i.e., by protect- ing riparian buffers, limiting development around water bodies, implementing stream protec- tion, etc.—can be one of the most effective ways to improve a community’s climate resilience. Such resources can be preserved through multiple methods, which are detailed in the Imple- mentation Tools section of this document. Maps and Data The map “Water Bodies and Watersheds, Town of Lansing” below shows the water bodies and Table 3. Town of Lansing water bodies and classification, as determined from the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Environmental Resource Mapper. 18 watersheds in the Town of Lansing. Displayed here are permanent streams—those that flow year-round—as well as intermittent (or seasonal) streams, which flow only when they receive water from upstream, groundwater, and/or precipitation. The data for this map come from the New York State GIS Clearinghouse dataset entitled “Water Quality Classifications - NYS,” last revised in May 2017. Map 2: Waterbodies and watersheds within the Town of Lansing. Map 3: Waterbody quality classifications within the Town of Lansing. See Table 2 for explanation of classification standards. 19 Map 3 shows the quality classifications of water bodies in the town of Lansing. The data for this map come from the New York State GIS Clearinghouse dataset entitled “Water Quality Classifica- tions - NYS,” last revised in May 2017. Map 4 “Ditches, Culverts and Withdrawals, Town of Lansing” below shows the location of with- drawals from facilities, ditches and culverts in the town of Lansing. The data for the location of culverts and ditches are from Tompkins County Planning Department and the data for withdraw- als from facilities are sourced from New York GIS Clearinghouse. Map 4: Ditches, culverts, and withdrawals within the Town of Lansing. Resources and References Climate Impact Lab (2020). Climate Impact Map. Retrieved from http://www.impactlab.org/ map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=1981-2010&gmeas=absolute&gyear=1986-2005 Delaware County Soil and Water Conservation District, Delaware County Planning Department, New York City Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Water Supply, Stream Man- agement Program (March 2014). Post-Flood Emergency Stream Intervention. Retrieved from https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/administration_pdf/streammnll.pdf New York State GIS Clearinghouse. Retrieved from http://gis.ny.gov/ New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d.). DEC Regulations, Chapter X: Division of Water. Retrieved from http://www.dec.ny.gov/regs/2485.html 20 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d.). New York State Environmen- tal Excellence Award Case Study. Retrieved from https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/permits_ej_oper- ations_pdf/eeadelcosoil.pdf New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d.). Protection of Waters: Distur- bance of the Bed or Banks of a Protected Stream or Other Watercourse. Retrieved from http:// www.dec.ny.gov/permits/6554.html U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (n.d.). Buffalo District Website. Retrieved from http://www.lrb. usace.army.mil/ United States Environmental Protection Agency (October 2013). Water: Rivers and Streams. Retrieved from https://archive.epa.gov/water/archive/web/html/streams.html 21 WATERSHEDS What Is a Watershed? A watershed is the land area that contributes runoff water to a particular point, such as a stream, river, lake, or wetland. Sources of water contributing to a watershed include (but are not limited to) springs, streams, seeps, ditches, culverts, marshes, wetlands, swamps, and ponds. Eventually, all surface water, some groundwater resources, and precipitation that falls within a watershed will drain into a single receiving water body. Watersheds exist at various scales within a hierarchical structure. Gullies and ravines, for ex- ample, trickle into streams, which then feed into larger streams or rivers. Each of these water bodies (gully, ravine, stream, etc.) drains its own small-scale watershed (often called a “subwa- tershed”) so that, in the end, larger watersheds are comprised of several such subwatersheds. In local planning development efforts, it is important to view these systems at the subwatershed scale in order to fully understand the impact of local land use and development decisions on these larger, critical systems. While the term watershed is often used interchangeably with “drainage basin,” the term drain- age basin usually refers to a larger watershed such as the Susquehanna River Drainage Basin or the Lake Ontario Drainage Basin. Why Are Watersheds Important? Because of the symbiotic relationship between water and land use, the contextual characteristics of the entire watershed must be considered when addressing water quality and water quantity issues and include such factors as the amount of impervious cover and effectiveness of local land management practices. Water influences social, ecological, and economic systems (such as provision of drinking water, flooding, recreation, and future economic growth); thus watersheds are increasingly common management and planning units. State and federal agencies use and look favorably on water-re- lated management and planning processes that also utilize the principles and concepts of water- shed management. How are Watersheds Regulated? Though activities within a watershed can greatly influence the ecosystems they contain, many regulations apply to specific waterbodies or wetlands within a watershed, and not the watershed itself. Watersheds in the Town of Lansing The watersheds and subwatersheds within the Town of Lansing drain into the Oswego River ba- sin, which drains north to Lake Ontario. 22 Table 4. Watersheds and subwatersheds in the Town of Lansing. Data were sourced from the Tompkins County Natu- ral Resources Inventory. Watershed/Subwatershed Acres Sq. Miles (approx.)Drainage Basin East Cayuga Lakeshore No.9,217 14.40 Oswego East Cayuga Lakeshore So.13,095 20.46 Oswego Owasco Inlet 1,043 1.63 Oswego Salmon Creek 21,881 34.19 Oswego Role of Watersheds in Changing Weather As Upstate New York’s temperature increases, and extreme weather patterns become more frequent, focusing on protecting and managing the watershed will not only increase resilience but also protect community health from harmful runoffs resulting from increased high-volume precipitation. According to data from the Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security, New York’s Southern Tier and Central Region will likely see up to a 3.2 inch increase in precipitation between 2015 and 2050 (CCAFS (2014). GCM Data Portal: Research Pro- gram on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security. Retrieved from http://www.ccafs-cli- mate.org/data/). With this rise and an increase in impervious surfaces (such as roads, parking lots, and industrial lands), runoff will increase and contaminate the local water networks of wa- ter bodies, increasing the probability of harmful algal blooms (Cayuga Watershed Intermunicipal Organization (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cayugawatershed.org/). Programs such as the Routine Monitoring Statewide Program, monitor watersheds throughout the state, but local governments can act directly to protect watersheds in their municipalities. Below are potential actions a local government can take to preserve watersheds, provided by the NYS Department of State Local Government Handbook: 1. Municipalities may adopt laws to protect groundwater recharge areas, watersheds and surface waters. • Local sanitary codes can be adopted to regulate land use practices that have the potential to contaminate water supplies. Sanitary codes may address the design of storm water drainage systems, the location of drinking water wells, and the design and placement of on-site sanitary waste disposal systems. • Water resources can be further protected through the adoption of land use laws that prohibit certain potentially polluting land uses in recharge areas, watersheds and near surface waters. • Site plan review laws and subdivision regulations may also be used to minimize the amount of impervious surfaces, and to require that storm water systems be designed to protect water supplies. 2. Municipalities also have authority under the Public Health Law (PHL) to enact regulations for the protection of their water supplies, even if located outside of the municipality’s territorial boundaries. • Such regulations must be approved by the New York State Department of Health. Also, under state statutes, “realty subdivisions” – those containing five or more lots that are five acres or less in size – must undergo approval of their water supply and sewerage facilities by the county health department. (This requirement is under Pub- lic Health Law, Art. 11, Title II and Environmental Conservation Law, Art. 17, Title 15.) 23 3. The Federal Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1996 established stringent water-supply capacity and quality standards for all public drinking water sources eligible for Federal assistance or otherwise coming within Federal regulatory jurisdiction. • The 1996 amendments greatly enhanced the existing law by recognizing source water protection, operator training, funding for water system improvements, and public information as important components of safe drinking water. 4. Communities can protect critical watersheds though SEQRA* by: • identifying them as unique natural areas • adopting local regulations in the comprehensive plan for storm water control, ordi- nances for sediment and erosion control, building and sanitary codes, floodplain reg- ulation, and timber harvesting guidelines or other vegetation removal standards; and • frequently monitoring local project processes for regulatory compliance (US EPA) (New York State Division of Local Government Services (March 2018). Local Govern- ment Handbook, 194-196. Retrieved from https://www.dos.ny.gov/lg/publications/ Local_Government_Handbook.pdf). * “New York’s Environmental Quality Review Act (SEQRA) requires all state and local govern- ment agencies to assess environmental impacts equally with social and economic factors during discretionary decision-making on proposed activities and projects. DEC is charged with issuing regulations regarding the SEQR process, and may provide technical assistance when needed” (New York State Division of Local and Government Services, Local Government Handbook, 2018). Below are partnerships available to local governments in the effort to preserve watersheds, pro- vided by the NYS Department of State Local Government Handbook: 1. DEC can help local governments develop small projects for watershed protection, and as- sists them in planning and implementing strategies for protecting, developing and using local water. • DEC issues general wastewater and storm water permits and, with partners, identifies funding sources for sustainable wastewater infrastructure programs. • DEC also enforces standards for sewage treatment, and tests and certifies operators for municipal wastewater treatment plants. 2. The Technical Advisory Services program helps business and government understand and comply with state environmental requirements, and provides services for protecting the New York City Watershed and helping small businesses comply with air pollution stan- dards. 3. The Industrial Finance Program provides low-cost loans to private entities seeking to borrow for capital facilities that deal with solid waste, sewage treatment, drinking water, limited hazardous waste disposal and site remediation. 4. The Financial Assistance to Business program helps businesses comply with air and water quality environmental regulations and provides grants to small businesses for specific pollution control or prevention projects (New York State Division of Local Government Services (March 2018). Local Government Handbook, 175-178. Retrieved from https:// www.dos.ny.gov/lg/publications/Local_Government_Handbook.pdf) 24 Maps and Data The map “Watersheds and Hydrology, Town of Lansing” illustrates the four watersheds in the Town of Lansing. Watershed boundary data were sourced from the New York GIS Clearing- house. Map 6 shows the biodiversity score for water- sheds in the Town of Lansing, relative to state- wide mean. Watershed biodiversity score data were sourced from New York GIS Clearinghouse. The maps “Average Precipitation and Maximum Temperature, 1981-2020, Town of Lansing” (Map 7) show the average monthly and annual temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) and the aver- age monthly and annual precipitation in inches for the Town of Lansing. Data for average pre- cipitation and temperatures was sourced from Geospatial Data Gateway. Map 6: Biodiversity scores for watersheds in the Town of Lansing, relative to statewide mean. Map 5: Watersheds and hydrology within the Town of Lansing. 25 Map 7: Average precipitation and maximum temperature contours for the Town of Lansing, 1981-2020. Resources and References Association of State Wetland Managers (2020). Protecting the Nation’s Wetlands. Retrieved from https://www.aswm.org/ Berke, P.R., Godschalk, D.R., Kaiser, E.J., & Rodriguez, D.A. (2006). Environmental systems. In Urban land use planning (pp.171-175). University of Illinois Press. Cayuga Lake Watershed Network (2018). Protecting Our Water in an Era of Rapid Change. Re- trieved from http://www.cayugalake.org/ Cayuga Watershed Intermunicipal Organization (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cayugawater- shed.org/ CCAFS (2014). GCM Data Portal: Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security. Retrieved from http://www.ccafs-climate.org/data/ Cornell Cooperative Extension of Dutchess County (2020). Natural Resources. Retrieved from http://ccedutchess.org/environment/natural-resources Cornell University Geospatial Information Repository (CUGIR) (n.d.). Retrieved from https://cu- gir.library.cornell.edu/ 26 Dutchess County Department of Planning and Development (1985). Natural Resources Invento- ry, Chapter 5: Water Resources of Dutchess County, NY. Retrieved from http://www.co.dutchess. ny.us/CountyGov/Departments/Planning/nrichapfive.pdf New York State Division of Local Government Services (March 2018). Local Government Hand- book, 175-178, 194-196. Retrieved from https://www.dos.ny.gov/lg/publications/Local_Govern- ment_Handbook.pdf Tompkins County Department of Planning and Sustainability (2020). Tompkins County NY. Gov, Tompkins County Natural Resources Inventory. Retrieved from http://tompkinscountyny.gov/ planning/nri-nri2 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (n.d.). Hydrologic Unit Boundaries. Retrieved from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/techni- cal/nra/nri/?cid=nrcs143_013728 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (January 2020). Healthy Watersheds Protection. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/hwp U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (September 2019). Surf Your Watershed. Retrieved from https://cfpub.epa.gov/surf/locate/index.cfm 27 WETLANDS What Is a Wetland? Wetlands, according to the United States Army Corps of Engineers (Army Corps), are “those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil condi- tions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, wet meadows, and similar area” (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Regulatory Program Frequently Asked Questions. (n.d.). https://www. usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/Regulatory-Program-and-Permits/Frequently-Asked-Ques- tions/). According to the NNYSDEC, “Freshwater wetlands are those areas of land and water that support a preponderance of characteristic wetlands plants that out-compete upland plants because of the presence of wetland hydrology (such as prolonged flooding) or hydric (wet) soils. Freshwater wetlands commonly include marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens” (New York State De- partment of Environmental Conservation [NYS DEC]. Wetlands. (n.d.). https://www.dec.ny.gov/ lands/305.html). According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Wet- lands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season” (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]. What is a Wetland? (n.d.). https://www.epa.gov/wet- lands/what-wetland). It is often easy to recognize some wetlands such as swamps and marshes. However, some other wetlands are not obvious because they are dry during part of the year or do not have standing water, such as forested wetlands and wet meadows. Why Are Wetlands Important? The unique natural characteristics of wetlands make them important features in the landscape. Wetlands can provide numerous beneficial services for people and for fish and wildlife. Wet- lands are critical natural ecosystems and provide a variety of benefits, such as: • filtering harmful toxins, nutrients, and sediment from surface runoff; • storing floodwaters and reducing the magnitude of flood events; • providing valuable habitat for a diverse array of flora and fauna, including many rare, threatened, or endangered species; and • helping maintain the atmosphere. Wetlands also have diverse functions related to humans. For example, the recreational uses of wetlands, including birdwatching, hunting, and fishing, can directly bring economic contribu- tions to local communities (EPA. Why are Wetlands Important. https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/ why-are-wetlands-important). Also, wetlands provide people with various natural products, such as fish and shellfish, blueberries, cranberries, timber, and wild rice. Therefore, wetlands are highly regulated by the Army Corps and the NYSDEC due to their economic and environmental importance. How Are Wetlands Regulated? The Army Corps regulates wetlands under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act and issues wet- land permits for the placement of fill or dredge materials and the construction of certain struc- tures in waterways (navigable and non-navigable) and wetlands. Disturbances to wetlands must 28 be mitigated in accordance with Army Corps regulations. The Army Corps permit required for activities within a wetland, and the amount of wetlands mitigation required, vary depending on the type of project proposed and the area of wetland impacted. The NYSDEC primarily regulates wetlands that are 12.4 acres (5 hectares) or larger in size under the Freshwater Wetlands Act. It protects smaller wetlands if they are considered to have un- usual local importance. For any work occurring within a wetland or within 100 feet of a wetland boundary, the NYSDEC requires that a wetlands permit be obtained (NYS DEC. Freshwater Wet- lands Program. (n.d.). https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/4937.html). Prior to conducting work in or near a wetland, the Regional DEC office or the Army Corps district office should be contacted to obtain the necessary approvals and permits. Each of these agen- cies will automatically forward permit applications to the other, and each agency will contact the applicant if additional permits and/or paperwork are needed. The Army Corps and the NYSDEC have the authority to levy fines if permits are not obtained or wetlands are improperly altered. How Are Wetlands Classified? Due to regional and local differences in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation and other factors, such as human disturbance, wetlands can vary widely. The EPA recognizes wetlands into two categories: coastal or tidal wetlands and inland or non-tidal wet- lands. The NYSDEC classifies and ranks wetlands based on their respective functions, values, and benefits. There are four classes of wetlands, of which Class I wetlands are the most valuable and are subject to the most stringent standards. For regulatory purposes, the Army Corps classifies wetlands only as regulated or not regulated according to the presence of wetland hydrology, hydric soils, and hydrophytic vegetation (wetland plants). Wetlands’ Role with Climate Change As a key component to the ecosystem, wetlands deliver significant contributions to the Town of Lansing, the region and watersheds related to the region. According to the US Environmen- tal Protection Agency (EPA), wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems, serving as a “natural supermarket” for native species. Within urban areas, wetlands often function as a sponge that can slow down and distribute flood runoff waters. Wetlands around the shores of rivers and lakes provide important areas for floodwaters to inundate. Wetlands store and slow water flows during flooding periods helping to steady flow rates, reduce flood peaks, and lower the flood risks to cities and other important infrastructures. Wetlands are crucial for most devel- oped and agricultural areas of Upstate New York where the topography is hilly or mountainous, with relatively high runoff rates. In response to increasing rainfall and storm events, wetlands could moderate those negative impacts by storing water as well as storing carbon to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. (n.d.). Wetlands and Climate Change – Information Resources. Australian Government. https://www. environment.gov.au/water/wetlands-climate-change-resources). Challenges Facing Wetlands Wetlands, despite their resilience, are vulnerable to climate change, and especially alterations in 29 hydrology, and their quality is rapidly declining. A healthy wetland is a vital resource for filtering surface runoff and preventing contamination of drinking water. Although water treatment plants deal with direct waste from communities, most rural septic systems do not handle ditch runoff waters, which contain pollutants from roads, agriculture, and even landfills (NYS DEC). Unless such water enters a wetland, it can pollute local water systems, raise nutrient levels (such as phosphates), and lead to algal bloom in waterbod- ies. Harmful algal blooms can trigger public health and environmental issues and negatively affect local and regional economies. With climate change and increasing precipitation, we must preserve wetlands to promote not only the health of natural areas, but also public health. Wetlands are also vital to local wildlife. They are the main habitat for the bottom of the food chain, and once affected or modified, can directly or indirectly affect all other species that rely on that food source (US EPA). In a wetland, leaves and other plant residues decompose into detritus that feeds small aquatic insects and small fish, which eventually become prey for larger aquatic and terrestrial animals. Wetlands and Adaptation Strategies Well-managed wetlands can help communities adapt to climate change. According to the EPA, communities can take the following steps to preserve wetlands and mitigate climate change: • Create marshes by planting appropriate species; • Prevent or limit groundwater extraction from shallow aquifers; • Design adaptive storm drainage systems; • Incorporate longer climate predictions in land use planning horizons; and • Integrate wetland protection into the planning of sewers and other infrastructures (Climate Change Adaptation Resource Center (ARC-X). (n.d.). Climate Impacts on Water Management and Ecosystem Protection. EPA. https://www.epa.gov/arc-x/climate-im- pacts-water-management-and-ecosystem-protection#tab-4). Why Do We Create Maps of Wetlands? States that consistently and thoroughly monitor and assess wetlands can better manage and protect local wetland resources. However, information on wetland size, location, and ecological services, is often scattered, underestimated and difficult to find (Wetland Inventory Special- ist Group. Mediterranean Wetlands Inventory. (n.d.). https://medwet.org/wp-content/up- loads/2018/10/MedWetSTN-inventories-EN.pdf ). Mapping wetlands can establish a baseline for their extent, condition, function, and trends over time, thus assisting with their management. Sometimes wetland borders may be difficult to delineate. Therefore, the maps of wetlands can be a useful tool for determining which parcels should or should not be preserved, especially when overlaid with and compared to other maps (such as the flood zone map shown on page 46). Because wetlands are fragile ecosystems, the state legally establishes a 100-foot buffer zone around each wetland. The boundaries are based on three factors: existence of hydrophytic vegetation, hydric soil type, and standing water. To be designated a wetland usually requires two or more of the factors. Though the map below may represent existing wetlands, their presence and scale can continually fluctuate, especially in the context of climate change. To have the 30 latest maps, communities have to be aware of the changing landscape. For identifying new, unmapped wetlands, consult the Freshwater Wetlands Delineation Manual (New York State. (1995, July). Freshwater Wetlands Delineation Manual. Retrieved from https://www.dec.ny.gov/ docs/wildlife_pdf/fwdelman.pdf). Mapped Wetlands in the Town of Lansing Lansing has many wetlands, especially in the northwest and southeast part of the township. The map below depicts the Tompkins County Mapped Wetlands and wetlands delineated by the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI), as well as those protected by the NYSDEC. The detailed data are shown in Table 5 . Changes in land use, natural infrastructure, and vegetation will eventually alter wetlands. Furthermore, wetlands not detected due to the limits of technology might not be shown on the map. Thus, to protect wetland resources and fragile ecosystems, it is important to understand the characteristics of the existing identified wetlands. Table 5: Sizes of wetlands in the Town of Lansing. Data Source Acres of Wetlands % of Municipality County-Mapped Wetlands, 2015 1,502 3.4% National Wetlands Inventory Wetlands 1,410 3.1% Land Use-Land Cover Data Designated Wetlands 1,150 2.5% NYSDEC Freshwater Wetlands 615 1.4% According to the Tompkins County wetlands data derived from aerial photographs in 2012, there are six types of wetlands in Lansing: aquatic bed, emergent, forested, scrub-shrub, uncon- solidated bottom, and unconsolidated shore. Fifty-four percent of the total wetlands in Lansing are forested. The National Wetlands Inventory, derived from aerial photographs from 1985, identifies five types of wetlands in Lansing: freshwater emergent wetland; freshwater forested/shrub wetland; freshwater pond; lake; and riverine. A freshwater emergent wetland is an herbaceous marsh, fen, swale, or wet meadow, while a freshwater forested/shrub wetland is a forested swamp or wetland shrub bog or wetland (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (2019, April). Wetlands Mapper Documentation and Instructions Manual. Retrieved from https://www.fws.gov/wetlands/doc- uments/Wetlands-Mapper-Documentation-Manual-May-2019.pdf). The NYSDEC data show wetlands that are currently regulated under the NYS Freshwater Wetlands Act outside of the Adirondack Park. However, due to the regulatory gaps between current federal and state regula- tions, many wetlands are now vulnerable. Therefore, the maps below could help local commu- nities in Lansing to identify potential wetlands and guide land-use changes, thus contributing to protecting and improving all wetlands. Maps and Data Map 8 shows the National Wetlands Inventory wetlands (FEMA 1983), NYSDEC Freshwater Wetlands, and the Tompkins County-mapped wetlands. Map 9 shows Lansing wetlands in 2012 (the most up-to-date information) as mapped by Tompkins County. All subsequent maps in this document that display wetlands use these 2012 data. 31 Many wetlands do not appear on wetland maps. Although the Army Corps and the NYSDEC cre- ate and periodically update wetland maps, these maps merely indicate the presence of wetlands and are developed for use at a very broad scale (1:200,000). A qualified wetland specialist (Army Corps Engineer, County Soil and Water staff, or private consultant) can conduct an on-ground, site-specific investigation. If land appears to be wet, or has typical wetland plants or soils, land- owners should call the Army Corps or the NYSDEC prior to altering the land to avoid wetland destruction and possible fines. For questions about wetlands on active farmlands or the Wetlands Reserve Program (which pays landowners for establishing wetland easements on agricultural property), contact the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Ithaca Office. Resources and References U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Program Frequently Asked Questions, (n.d.). https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/ Civil-Works/Regulatory-Program-and-Permits/Frequently-Asked-Questions/ New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Wetlands, (n.d.). https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/305.html Freshwater Wetlands Program, (n.d.). https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/4937.html U.S. Environmental Protection Agency What is a Wetland, (n.d.). https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/what-wetland Why are Wetlands Important, (n.d.). https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/why-are-wetlands-import- ant Climate Impacts on Water Management and Ecosystem Protection, (n.d.). https://www.epa.gov/ arc-x/climate-impacts-water-management-and-ecosystem-protection#tab-4 Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. (n.d.). Wetlands and Climate Change – Information Resources. Australian Government. https://www.environment.gov.au/water/wet- lands-climate-change-resources Wisconsin Wetlands Association. (2018, May 24). How Will Wetlands Be Affected by Climate Change? https://wisconsinwetlands.org/updates/how-will-wetlands-be-affected-by-climate- change/ Wetland Inventory Specialist Group. Mediterranean Wetlands Inventory. (n.d.). https://medwet. org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/MedWetSTN-inventories-EN.pdf U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory, Wetlands Mapper, (n.d.). https://www.fws.gov/wetlands/data/ Mapper.html Wetlands Mapper Documentation and Instructions Manual, (n.d.). https://www.fws.gov/wet- lands/documents/Wetlands-Mapper-Documentation-Manual-May-2019.pdf 32 Map 8: Town of Lansing wetlands as delineated by three entities. 33 Map 9: Lansing wetlands as delineated by Tompkins County, 2015 34 FLOOD HAZARD AREAS What Are Flood Hazard Areas? Flood Hazard Areas (FHA) are areas that the Flood Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has determined to be vulnerable to flooding. The description of flood event frequencies is shown in Table 6. Additionally, according to FEMA, the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) “is the land in the flood plain within a community subject to a 1 percent or greater chance of flooding in any given year” and includes erosion hazards from floods and mudflows (The Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA]. Flood Hazard Areas. (n.d.). https://www.fema.gov/hmgp-ap- peal-keywords/9131). Why Are Flood Hazard Areas Important? Flood events are part of natural hydrological and seasonal cycles. The magnitude of the event and size of the inundated region are affected by impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots, etc.) and the wetlands within a watershed Creating or increasing impervious surfaces, diverting water off the landscape (to ditches or nearby water bodies), and losing wetlands that help store and control floodwaters can lead to higher volumes and peak flows of storm water runoff. Flooding has both hazards and benefits. Floodwaters may carry silt, raw sewage, oil, or chemical waste. Also, according to FEMA, more people drown in cars in floods than anywhere else. People should be aware that although floods can damage infrastructure, the economy, and the environ- ment, the natural processes of periodic inundation accompanied by erosion and deposition can bring needed changes to the topography, soils, vegetation, and their physical features over time (Snohomish County. About Flooding & Floodplains: Benefits and Hazards. (n.d.) https://snohom- ishcountywa.gov/955/About-Flooding-Floodplains-Benefits). Also, periodic floods can benefit the habitat of certain flora and fauna, increase the fertility of agricultural lands located in flood areas, recharge groundwater, and enhance biological productivity. Therefore, to take advantage of floods but also effectively reduce the hazards and losses, we need to manage Flood Hazard Areas. Flood Hazard Areas in the Town of Lansing Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) produces paper Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) to show areas subject to flooding as determined by historic, meteorological, and hydro- logical data, as well as open space conditions, flood control structures, and watershed land use during FEMA studies. These maps delineate Special Flood Hazard Areas, which “will be inundat- ed by the flood event having a 1% chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year,” com- monly referred to as 100-year or base flood areas. These maps may also include the elevation of the base flood (100-year flood event), flood insurance risk zones, and areas subject to inunda- tion by a 0.2%-annual-chance or 500-year flood event, all of which can be used to establish the National Flood Insurance Program’s (NFIP) flood insurance premiums. Climate Change in Flood Hazard Areas As most people would expect, flood hazard areas are vulnerable to increased risks of flooding as weather patterns become more extreme. According to National Weather Service forecast- ed weather patterns and the region’s hilly characteristics, streams that are only 6 inches deep could easily swell up to 10 feet deep in less than an hour. In addition, as the weather patterns in 35 winter fluctuate, snowmelts can cause severe flooding that could overwhelm streams, ditches, and infrastructure unable to cope with the runoff. In addition, wastewater treatment plants are at risk during floods. As a result of climate change, areas where flooding is directly related to the intensity and amount of rainfall, such as urban areas and steep basins, might suffer from more frequent and larger magnitude floods. Intense precipitation in urban areas, where impervious surfaces, reduced vegetative cover, and compacted soils minimize the ability of soil to store water, can in- crease stream flows more quickly (New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. (2011, November). Responding to Climate Change in New York State. https://rochesterenviron- ment.com/PDF%20files/ClimAID-Report.pdf). Similarly, small and steep basins that can collect water rapidly are apt to flood during intense periods of rainfall. In New York State, many cities are concentrated along transportation corridors, typically rivers and their valleys. Much of the state’s infrastructure reflects such early patterns of development. For example, many major roadways in Central New York lie within the FEMA’s 100-year flood- plain (Stephen. S., et al. (2014). Water Resources. Responding to Climate Change in New York State (ClimAID)). According to the NYSDEC, flooding events in Upstate New York are expected to increase at a constant rate of 17% every decade, with an overall increase in 100- and 500-year floods (see maps below) and geographical expansion of such flooding events. Adaptation Strategies Communities can implement the following stormwater management strategies which fall under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System stormwater program: • Identify and pay attention to flood hazard areas; • As buildings, infrastructure, and flood-protection structures age, move them out of floodplains and rebuild them elsewhere; • Gradually withdraw development from the highest-risk, flood-prone areas. • Use tools from the Army Corps of Engineers, such as the Climate Impact Hydrology and HEC GeoHMS from ESRI to forecast how flooding could expand and affect land not cur- rently designated as flood hazard areas; • Use and manage floodplains appropriately; • Improve weather predictions; • Prepare for emergencies; and • Carry out sufficient Flood Control Projects (New York State Department of Environmen- tal Conservation. Flood Protection Projects. (n.d.). http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/4994. html). Additional tools and their descriptions can be found at the following links: • Army Corps of Engineers (ACE): https://www.usace.army.mil/corpsclimate/Public_Tools_ Dev_by_USACE/ • USACE Hydrology Tools: http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/ • ESRI Flood Planning: https://solutions.arcgis.com/local-government/help/flood-plan- ning/ 36 Equity Issues Related to Flood Hazard Areas Climate change is affecting the livelihoods of people and ecosystems unevenly, creating equity issues. As local and regional governments grapple with the challenge of ameliorating floodings, they have many options, each with implications for equity within the community, such as risk exposure and expense. For example, managing flood hazard areas could include land-use con- trols that might modify property rights or property values. An open and fair process is neces- sary to achieve this in an equitable manner. Why Do We Create Maps of Flood Hazard Areas? Flooding throughout the state is expensive and disruptive. FEMA’s flood hazard mapping pro- grams aim to provide flood hazard and risk data so communities can act. Although Flood Hazard Area maps provided by FEMA can depict many areas threatened by flooding, most of these maps and data are outdated because FEMA does not take climate change into account. There- fore, these maps may not depict all areas actually affected by flooding. Also, events such as snowmelts could trigger floods in unforeseen areas and lead to damage not covered by FEMA’s Flood Insurance Program. Although there are many different ways to mitigate such problems, each community must determine which areas are most likely to be affected by extreme weather patterns. Municipalities must have accurate flood hazard maps so they can effectively commu- nicate flood risk to local families, communities, and other stakeholders. Such maps help identify areas subject to flooding and provide background for reducing future losses. Maps and Data FEMA publishes the data from paper FIRMs and Letters of Map Revision (LOMRs) online as a digital database called the National Flood Hazard Layer (NFHL). FEMA also offers Flood Risk Maps (FRM), Flood Risk Reports (FRR), and Flood Risk Databases (FRD) online to help commu- nity officials and the general public assess and visualize flood risk. The flood hazard boundary has an effective date of 1985. The age of the base data should be considered when using these maps for planning purposes. The measurement used to estimate the frequency of a flood event can be confusing because a 100-year flood event is not a flood event that is likely to occur once every 100 years. Rather, it has a one percent chance of occurring or being exceeded during a one-year period, a 10% chance of occurring during a 10-year period, an 18% chance of occurring in a 20-year period, and so on. Table 6 shows the likelihood of occurrence of different flood types during specified intervals of time. Table 6. Flood type probabilities (Cornell Cooperative Extension, 1998). Flood Type In 1 year In 10 years In 20 years In 25 years In 30 years In 50 years In 100 years 10-year 10% 65% 88% 93% 96% 99% 99.99% 25-year 4% 34% 56% 64% 71% 87% 98% 50-year 2% 18% 33% 40% 45% 64% 87% 100-year 1% 10% 18% 22% 26% 39% 63% 500-year 0.2% 2% 4% 5% 6% 10% 18% 37 In the Town of Lansing, there is a high risk of flooding along Cayuga Lake and Salmon Creek, as depicted in Map 10. During floods, the Paddle-N-More building at Myers Park will be significantly affected, and part of the Salmon Creek Road will be not accessible. According to the map show- ing existing land use and the 100-year flood zone in Lansing (Map 11), most of the flood zones are surrounded by vegetative cover, which could serve as a buffer zone. However, some residen- tial, industrial, transportation, and transmission areas within the flood zones will require more at- tention. Residents might be affected unequally and floodwaters may pick up pollutants or toxins while passing by industrial sites. Although flood zones are based on the probability of the area flooding, with climate change, these 100- and 500-year floods are expected to increase exponentially. According to a study pub- lished by researchers at Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology after conducting hundreds of simulation experiments, the researchers concluded that floods currently classified as 100-year floods could occur every 3-20 years and 500-year floods could occur as frequently as every 25 years (Jennifer, C. (2012, February 13). With Climate Change, Today’s ‘100- Year Floods’ May Happen Every Three to 20 Years: Research. PHYS. Retrieved from https://phys. org/news/2012-02-climate-today-year-years.html). These storms may be up to 3 meters high in the surge flood, which could easily top current flood walls which are built to withhold up to 1.5 meters. With this in mind, it is important to understand how development will need to change over time to accommodate dramatic increases in flooding. The flood map data was originally collected from the Cornell University Geospatial Information Repository with additional references from the NYSDEC Environmental Resource Mapper. FEMA updated flood data in 2015. Resources and References Federal Emergency Management Act (FEMA) Flood Hazard Areas, (n.d.). https://www.fema.gov/ hmgp-appeal-keywords/9131 Town of Caroline, (n.d.). Flood Map Service Center, https://msc.fema.gov/portal/search?Address- Query=caroline%20ny#searchresultsanchor National Flood Insurance Program, (n.d.). https://www.fema.gov/national-flood-insurance-pro- gram National Weather Service Temperature Map, (n.d.). https://www.weather.gov/current New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. (2011, November). Responding to Climate Change in New York State. https://rochesterenvironment.com/PDF%20files/ClimAID-Re- port.pdf Stephen. S., et al. (2014). Water Resources. Responding to Climate Change in New York State (ClimAID). New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Flood Protection Projects, (n.d.). http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/4994.html 38 Jennifer, C. (2012, February 13). With Climate Change, Today’s ‘100-Year Floods’ May Happen Every Three to 20 Years: Research. PHYS. Retrieved from https://phys.org/news/2012-02-cli- mate-today-year-years.html Cornell Cooperative Extension (1998). Water Courses Vol. 5, Issue 1, Spring 1998. Cornell Coop- erative Extension, Department of Soil, Crop and Atmospheric Sciences, Cornell University 39 Map 10: Town of Lansing 100-year-flood zones. 40 Map 11: Town of Lansing land use and flood zones for the Town of Lansing. 41 AQUIFERS What Is an Aquifer? Aquifers are geologic formations beneath the Earth’s surface that store and yield groundwater. One or more aquifers can lie beneath any given point on the Earth’s surface; The location, size, capacity, depth, and flow characteristics of an aquifer are directly related to the geology and hy- drology of the particular aquifer and its recharge area. (See definition of recharge area below.) Aquifers are usually described as confined or unconfined. Typically, confined aquifers are cov- ered with, or consist of, less permeable substances such as clay or contiguous shale. Unconfined aquifers consist of unconsolidated materials such as sand and gravel, which allow substances to easily percolate from the surface to the aquifers below. The uppermost boundary of surficial aquifers (those closest to the Earth’s surface) is defined by the water table, which is where the spaces in unconsolidated sediments and the openings in bedrock are fully saturated. The spaces between soil and rock particles in the unsaturated zone, located above the water table, are only partially occupied by water. The water table rises and falls depending on the rates of groundwater recharge and discharge, the capacity of the aquifer, the rate of water use by plants on the surface (transpiration), and water withdrawals. Aquifers can be replenished—or recharged—by the infiltration of precipitation and surface wa- ter runoff through soil, as well as by surface water resources such as streams, creeks, wetlands, and floodplains. The land area that contributes to this infiltration is called a recharge area. Recharge areas may replenish aquifers directly beneath them (as in the case of unconfined or surficial aquifers) or they may recharge aquifers far away (as in the case of confined aquifers). Why Are Aquifers Important? Aquifers are an important source of water for residential, commercial, and industrial uses. In central New York State, groundwater typically contributes more than half of the total annual flow to local streams and creeks. Because aquifers are replenished by the infiltration of surface water, impervious surfaces (pavement from roads or parking lots, roofs, building footprints, etc.) decrease recharge areas and threaten aquifers by inhibiting infiltration of precipitation and surface water through the soil. Any contaminant contained in or near an aquifer and/or its recharge area may potentially contaminate the aquifer. Potential contaminants include bacteria and pathogens leaching from septic systems; gas, salt, and oil washed from parking lots; fertilizers; pesticides; hazardous or toxic waste spills; and petroleum or oil leaking from underground storage tanks. Some groundwater migrates slowly and can take several years to decades or even centuries to move contaminants from the point of origin to the point of discharge. Once degraded, an aqui- fer can become unusable, and oftentimes remediation is not technologically or economically feasible. Moreover, because of groundwater and surface water interactions, contamination in an aquifer may eventually contaminate surface water as well. The quantity of water contained within an aquifer and the aquifer’s ability to serve as a reli- 42 able supply of water must also be considered. Generally, an aquifer’s geology, retention, and recharge characteristics determine the quantity of water available. When water is withdrawn at a rate faster than it is recharged, the aquifer can be depleted. Generally, this occurs when too many wells withdraw water from an aquifer. Map 10 depicts aquifers and an abandoned landfill which highlights an area of concern in regard to contamination. While it can be difficult to track the behavior of aquifers, the locational in- formation depicted on the map can be used to better understand what areas can be preserved and protected to mitigate future contamination of these valuable resources. This is especially important with continuously increasing amounts of runoff from agricultural lands and urban impermeable surfaces that carry contaminants potentially harmful to both the environment and human health. Aquifers in the Town of Lansing The main aquifer in the Town of Lansing lies below Salmon Creek. On the surface, the creek is known for its abundant fishing opportunities and its beautiful working landscape of fields and forests. This protected creek and surrounding wetlands provide significant flood protection for communities downstream, habitats for birds and fish, and drinking water for nearby residents. As rainwater runs off the landscape and into Salmon Creek below, it can accumulate pollutants (such as sediment, bacteria, pesticides, and herbicides) that negatively impact the quality of water in the creek. Steep slopes and shallow soils around some portions of creek reduce the ability of the landscape to absorb rainwater and therefore increase the potential for runoff. Land management practices designed to minimize the amount of pollutants entering runoff will be increasingly important for the future of this aquifer as surface water/pollutants seep down into the aquifer over time. Maps and Data Map 12: Town of Lansing aquifers and abandoned landfills. 43 Resources and References Miller, T.S. (1990). Sand and Gravel Aquifers of Schuyler County, New York. U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4073. New York State GIS Clearinghouse, http://gis.ny.gov/ Tompkins County, New York website. No Author listed. (n.d.) http://tompkinscountyny.gov/ files2/planning/nffa/docs/SalmonCreek.pdf U.S. Geological Survey, New York Water Science Center, Ithaca Program Office, https://ny.water. usgs.gov/about/officeithaca.html Winter, T.C., J.W. Harvey, O.L. Franke and W.M. Malley (1998). Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource. USGS Circular. SECTION 2: GEOLOGY AND SOILS 45 SLOPE AND TOPOGRAPHY What Are Slope and Topography? Slope and topography describe the shape and relief of the land. Topography is a measurement of elevation, and slope is the change in that elevation over a certain distance. Topography may be measured with lines that connect points representing the same elevation; these are called topographic contours. Slope is measured by calculating the difference in the elevation from one point to another divided by the lateral distance between those points. Topographic data can also be used to create a model of the land’s surface called a digital elevation model (DEM). What Are Factors Affecting Slopes? Slopes are naturally unstable. Gravity, wind, water, and disturbance, either natural or man- made, can cause mass movement, erosion, slippage, or slide. The characteristics that influence the stability of slope include geology, slope drainage, slope topography (shape and steepness), soil type and changes to the slope (adding or removing soil from the slope). Why Are Slope and Topography Important? During the higher intensity storms brought on by climate change, slope and topography influ- ence the severity of runoff. Runoff can create extremely dangerous situations for communi- ties located along hillsides or in a ravine as water accumulates in low elevations. Flash floods can occur in streams and rivers located in valleys even with moderate precipitation. Thus, it is important to consider topography when determining communities that are most vulnerable to flooding. Map 15 depicting slope and hydrology can help planners to determine the behavior of water during flooding and areas that might be prone to extreme runoff and mudslides. Areas marked with dark blue and their surroundings are areas of concern. Understanding slope and topography can also help municipalities make plans for water collection. Municipalities drawing up site plans for construction projects and most agricultural activities should consider topography and slope. Construction projects might include residences, indus- try, and transportation. For agricultural activities, slope and topography have a close relation- ship with crop selection and erosion control. Considering the slope of the land when choosing the correct location for infrastructure, reduces construction costs, minimizes risks from natural hazards (such as flooding and landslides), reduces erosion, and minimizes the impacts of the proposed development on natural resources such as soils, vegetation, and water systems. Slope and Topography in the Town of Lansing The elevation of the ground in Lansing slopes dramatically from the level of the lake at its west- ern border, to high points outside the boundary of the town to the east. Lansing is characterized by high-slope lakeshore, riparian edge areas, and low-slope developable agricultural highland. The steepest points in the town are at the edge of gorges and the lake, while the flattest areas are located around the town boundary and to the north. Open wetlands are concentrated in the highland areas. They drain into the lake through channelized streams and the main gorges, which are indicated on a slope map as steep cuts through the center of the town. As development occurs on this land, planners must consider the direction of water flow off a site. Most of the water drains into gorges from flatter, developable land. Inappropriate drainage 46 can erode the land and transport pollutants that could harm the ecological and scenic value of the gorge environments. Table 7 below summarizes the development potential of land based on its degree of slope. Table 7. Development potential based on degree of slope. Excerpted from Anderson (2000). Degree of Slope Development Potential 0% to 1%Suitable primarily for agriculture that uses flood irrigation unless extensive drain- age infrastructure is installed 1% to 3%Suitable for most development 3% to 8%Suitable for medium-density development 8% to 15%Suitable for moderate to low-density residential development as well as pastures, forests, and vineyards 15% to 25%Suitable for low-density residential development as well as pastures, forests, vine- yards, and recreational uses Over 25%Recreational uses and open space Maps and Data Map 13 shows elevation with each contour line representing 20 feet. Map 14 illustrates Table 7, Deveopment Potential Based on Degree of Slope. Map 15 shows the relationship between slope and water bodies. 57and was created from a hillshade Digital Elevation Model. The con- tours come from a 2’ contour dataset maintained by CUGIR and accessed via the NYS GIS Clear- inghouse. The wetlands and hydrology dataset is a combination of Tompkins County wetlands data, NYS wetlands data, and hydrologic centerlines for rivers and streams accessed via the Tompkins County GIS Dataset. All maps share the “NAD 1983 StatePlane New York Central FIPS 3102 Feet” projection. Resources and References Anderson, L.T. (2000). Planning the Built Environment. New York: Routledge, and Lehigh Valley Planning Commission, Steep Slopes: Guide and Model Regulations (2008). Fakundiny, R. H., & Albanese, J. R. (2005). New York State Geological Survey (NYSGS). In P. Eisen- stadt & L. E. Moss (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of New York State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Lehigh Valley Planning Commission, Steep Slopes: Guide and Model Regulations (2008), http:// www.lvpc.org/pdf/SteepSlopes.pdf New York State GIS Clearinghouse, http://gis.ny.gov/ U.S. Geological Survey, New York Water Science Center, Ithaca Program Office, https://ny.water. usgs.gov/about/officeithaca.html 47 Map 13: Elevation contours for the Town of Lansing. 48 Map 14: Slope grade throughout the Town of Lansing. 49 Map 15: Slope, hydrology, and wetlands for the Town of Lansing. 50 BEDROCK GEOLOGY What Is Bedrock Geology? The term “bedrock geology” refers to the basic rock formations that underlie soils and unconsol- idated materials (see Surficial Geology section). Bedrock occasionally protrudes through these materials or may be exposed alongside roads and creek beds. These rocks, formed hundreds of millions of years ago, constitute the foundation of materials and topography in a region. Bed- rock may be buried beneath glacial till, composed of rock fragments of various sizes that were released from glaciers as they receded. Why Is Bedrock Geology Important? In some parts of New York, the depth to bedrock is sometimes only 5 to 10 feet below the surface of the soil. Shallow depth to bedrock significantly impacts the location, development, maintenance, and cost of public services such as sewers, water supply systems, and roads. Con- struction feasibility and costs for private investments, such as building foundations, septic tanks, and private roads, are partially dependent on the depth to bedrock. Shallow bedrock may also be subject to frost heaving and deformation. Determination of bedrock qualities must be made on a site-specific basis. As bedrock weathers, it releases variable amounts of nitrogen and other plant nutrients that can be taken up by plants. This process may promote the growth of forests and grasslands and allow them to sequester more carbon dioxide than previously thought. How Was Bedrock Formed? Approximately 550 million years ago, the land that is now the Town of Lansing and the sur- rounding region was submerged under an ancient sea. Over the course of 325 million years, layers of sediment (sand, mud, salt, and lime) were deposited on the sea bottom and slowly compacted into beds of sedimentary rocks that we now know as sandstone, shale, and lime- stone. Bedrock Geology in Town of Lansing There are four major groupings of bedrock in Town of Lansing. The following are listed from oldest to youngest formations: • Ludlowville Formation This grouping of shales and limestones also runs along Cayuga Lake and juts out into the lake below the Moscow Formation near Salmon Creek. This formation makes about 0.2% of Town of Lansing’s bedrock. • Moscow Formation These shales and limestones, located between 600 and 1500 feet in elevation, are found mostly along Cayuga Lake and make up about 1.3% of the total bedrock. • Ithaca Formation This grouping of limestones, shales, and siltstones is the most common bedrock in Town of Lansing and makes up over 96.9% of the total land area. • Tully Limestone These limestones, shales, and siltstones are found at 400 to 1000 feet. This grouping occupies about 1.6% of Town of Lansing, and is often found near Cayuga Lake. 51 Maps and Data The New York State Geological Survey has produced a geographic data set of bedrock geology. The Bedrock Geology map was created at a scale of 1:2,500,000, and depicts general locations of various rock formations; it should not be used for any site-specific analyses. Resources and References Fakundiny, R. H., & Albanese, J. R. (2005). New York State Geological Survey (NYSGS). In P. Eisen- stadt & L. E. Moss (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of New York State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. National Science foundation (NSF), (2018). New source of global nitrogen discovered: Earth’s bedrock. (n.d.). Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ. jsp?cntn_id=244968&org=NSF&from=news Rafferty, J. P. (2018). Bedrock. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/ science/bedrock Tompkins County Planning Department, (2001). Tompkins County Natural Resources Inventory. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from http://tompkinscountyny.gov/files2/planning/nri/inventory. pdf Map 16: Town of Lansing bedrock formations. 52 U.S. Geological Survey, National Geologic Map Database, https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/ search New York Water Science Center, Ithaca Program Office, https://ny.water.usgs.gov/about/offi- ceithaca.html Von Englen, O.D. (1961). The Finger Lakes Region: Its Origin and Nature. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni- versity Press. 53 SURFICIAL GEOLOGY What Is Surficial Geology? Surficial geology describes the rocks and unconsolidated materials that lie between bedrock and the surface of the land. Formation of the Finger Lakes began millions of years ago and is recorded in the rock formations of the state. During the Paleozoic Era, our region was part of a vast inland sea for 325 million years. Gradually, bed after bed of sand, mud, lime, and salt accu- mulated and were compressed into rocks reaching a total depth of about 8,000 feet. About 200 million years ago, the land heaved upward and at this time drainage flowed south through the Susquehanna system. Over the next 100 million years the uplifted land was eroded into a plain which was then disrupted by additional uplifting. Continued erosion produced deep north-south gaps in the landscape and geology in this region. Why Is Surficial Geology Important? Surficial geology is important because the characteristics of materials below the earth’s surface influence the feasibility of constructing buildings and roads. Surficial deposits commonly deter- mine soil composition and therefore may affect agricultural viability. This information can also be used to better understand precipitation runoff, as permeability depends on geological com- position and soil type. It is important to consider how surficial geology can handle flooding and be affected by droughts. Upstate New York is fortunate to not be threatened by water scarcity; however, this does not mean that the ground is consistently moist. As Lansing develops, planners need to preserve and protect permeable surfaces that can handle variant weather patterns. The Soil Drainage map can be a useful tool to determine future land uses. Surficial Geology Deposits in Town of Lansing There are seven types of surficial geology deposits in Town of Lansing: • Kame Deposits are glacial deposits of various forms that are called kames, eskers, kame terraces, and kame deltas. They are small, irregular hills and terraces deposited by gla- ciers and are typically found in valleys. These deposits consist of gravels and/or sands 30 to 100 feet thick. • Lacutrine Sands are well sorted and stratified sand deposits that settled out when lakes were formed by the melting glaciers. Deposits range from 6 to 60 feet thick. • Lacutrine Silts and Clay are deposited in lakes formed during the melting of the glaciers. They are high in calcite, have low permeability, and form potentially unstable land. These are found in variable thicknesses up to 160 feet. • Outwash Sand and Gravel is restricted to valley bottoms and stream terraces. These de- posits vary from 5 to 65 feet thick. • Recent Deposits range from fine sands to gravels and are generally confined to flood- plains within a valley. They may be subject to frequent flooding and, in larger valleys, may be overlain by silt. Deposits range from 3 to 30 feet thick. • Till deposits are poorly sorted material of variable texture such as clay, silt-clay, or boulder clay that were deposited beneath the glacial ice. Permeability of these deposits varies with amount of compaction. Thicknesses vary from 3 to 160 feet. • Till Moraine is much like till, but has a more variable sorting, and is generally more per- 54 meable than till. Deposits of till moraine were typically set down adjacent to glacial ice. Thicknesses vary from 30 to 100 feet (Tompkins County Planning Department, 2001). Table 8. Surficial geology of Town of Lansing, as retrieved from the US Geological survey. Type of Surficial Geology Deposit % of Municipality Kame Deposits 0.78% Lacutrine Sand 0.19% Lacutrine Silts and Clay 6.05% Outwash Sand and Gravel 0.57% Recent Deposits 0.19% Till 90.38% Till Moraine 1.84% Maps and Data The following map (Map 17) shows the surficial geography of the Town of Lansing. The dataset is available from the Tompkins County Planning Department and originally retrieved from the US Geological Survey. Map 17: Town of Lansing surficial geology. 55 Resources and References Fakundiny, R. H., & Albanese, J. R. (2005). New York State Geological Survey (NYSGS). In P. Eisen- stadt & L. E. Moss (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of New York State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Tompkins County Planning Department, (2001). Tompkins County Natural Resources Inventory. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from http://tompkinscountyny.gov/files2/planning/nri/inventory. pdf U.S. Geological Survey (n.d.) National Geologic Map Database, https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/search New York Water Science Center, Ithaca Program Office, https://ny.water.usgs.gov/about/offi- ceithaca.html Wemett, L. (2015). Geological History and Glacial Formation of the Finger Lakes. Retrieved Feb- ruary 21, 2020, from https://www.lifeinthefingerlakes.com/geological-history-and-glacial-forma- tion-of-the-finger-lakes/ 56 SOILS What Are Soils? Soil is often defined as the composition of mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air. The primary texture of soils, such as sand, silt, and clay, describes different soil types. Why Are Soils Important? Soils affect various human activities, from agriculture to the construction of roads, buildings, and sewage disposal systems. They are critical to agricultural productivity and viability. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) evaluates soils by their ability to support agri- culture. Soil evaluations range from Class I soils, which are productive and easy to work, to Class VIII soils, which are not appropriate for agriculture. Planning-related officials and developers may use soil maps to determine soil suitability for future development. For example, a soil map may identify poorly drained areas, which could necessitate costly drainage and issues regarding wetlands if the site were developed. Classification of Soils NRCS prepares maps showing soil series containing soils that share common profiles. Soil series are further divided into soil types that share common physical features, general properties that affect the use of the soil, and properties that limit suitability for cultivation” (Town of Ulysses Natural Resources Inventory: www.ulysses.ny.us). Alluvial land and Muck and Peat-Fresh Water Marsh series soils are miscellaneous land types that consist of narrow strips of first bottom or small terrace remnants, variable texture drainage and reaction. Used mainly as permanent pasture, since use is strongly restricted by small size or irregular shape of the area or by poor drainage. Bath, Valois, Lansing series of soils are well drained. Lansing soils are fertile and productive and well-suited to dairying and crops such as hay, oats, and corn. Under good management, the soils are well suited to sugar beets. Chippewa and Alden, Ilion and Wayland series of soils are deep, poorly drained soils in dense glacial till. Surface runoff will accumulate on gentle slopes at the base of a hill with these soils, but will continue to seep down slope and not pond. Water will permeate into the subsoil very slowly. Conesus series of soils are deep and gravelly silt loams. Mild, favorable relief characterizes this series. The soils are easy to work, have good moisture-holding capacity, and are responsive to management practices. Vegetation is more easily established around building sites than on the Hudson and Cayuga soils because the material excavated is loamy till. The material is stony, however, and excavation for basements, septic tanks, or drainage fields might turn up boulders. Darien-Erie-Chippewa series soils are somewhat poorly drained, silty soils. These soils are not stony, but they contain numerous channery fragments of shale and sandstone. They all have a 57 strongly expressed fragipan that is sufficiently dense to interfere with root penetration and air and water movement. Halsey, Mardin and Madalin series of soils make up only a small percentage of Lansing’s soils. Halsey and Madalin are deep, very poorly drained mucky loam on outwash plains and terraces. Mardin soils are well-drained channery silt loam mainly found in woodlands and have wildlife uses. Some pasture can be grown, but erosion is a serious hazard. Howard, Valois, Palmyra, Arkport, Chenango and Made land series of soils are well drained, moderately coarse textures and medium-textured, gravelly soils. The series can be variable and lack of adequate drainage, but the proportion of good soils is relatively high and can support fine farms. (The series is found in valleys having the longest growing season in the county.) Dairying predominates on these soils and farmers grow corns, oats, and hay. These soils are also suitable for building sites and transportation infrastructure. Kendaia, Lyons, Eel and Lima series of soils are moderately well drained, medium-textured soils, which are slightly depressed and have slow surface drainage. However, the moderate drainage is not a serious factor for the crops commonly grown. Because of the sub-angular blocky structure in the subsoil and the absence of a fragipan, these soils respond to artificial drainage with tile if adequate outlets can be obtained. Langford series of soils are deep silty soils and somewhat poorly drained. The soils have slow surface runoff, permeability, and internal drainage, resulting in wetness and problems with sewage disposal. Many building sites require fill to make the lots high and dry enough for good lawns. Scarcity of outlets adds to the cost of construction. Lansing, Honeoye and Genesee series of soils are well drained and support medium-sized farms growing winter wheat, field beans, and sugar beets. These soils need a high level of manage- ment. They make good building sites but the underlying compacted glacial material may cause trouble in wet periods. Lordstown, Tuller, Ovid and Rhinebeck series of soils are deep and have silt loam and silty clay loam textures. The soils are fertile and mostly limy but highly erodible; favorable tilth is difficult to maintain. The dominant soil in this series is very high in available potassium. The soils are well suited to dairying, sugar beets, grass-legume mixtures for hay or pasture, and especially to corn, wheat, and oats. Much of the urban and suburban development in the vicinity of Ithaca is on these soils. If newly built properties are not near an existing municipal sewage system, builders could face sewage effluent problems because of the slow permeability in the clay subsoil. Phelps, Hudson, Cayuga, Collamer, Dunkirk and Williamson series of soils are well drained and moderately well drained and moderately fine textured. High erodibility limits the agricultural use of these soils. but they do support dairying and the growing of grapes and tree fruits (e.g. on the west side of Cayuga Lake). Summer cottages, houses and trailers are located in this association along the shore of Cayuga Lake but the soils are not well suited to large buildings or structures unless foundations can be placed in the underlying till or bedrock (Cayuga Lake Watershed Pre- 58 liminary Watershed Characterization: cayugawatershed.org) In addition to being evaluated in terms of agricultural viability, soil types have been assessed by the NRCS in terms of their suitability for various types of development. Soil characteristics that are considered in this assessment are depth to seasonal high-water table, depth to bedrock, flood potential, and permeability. Depth to seasonal high-water table affects building foun- dations and septic system siting. A seasonal high-water table can flood basements or cause a septic system to malfunction. A high water table can also affect the ability of a soil to support weighty structures (Town of Ulysses Natural Resources Inventory: www.ulysses.ny.us). Permeability and soil types As described in the previous section, all surficial characteristics, including soil types, influence land use (agricultural, urbanized, or conserved); structural stability of surrounding lands; runoff; and flooding, and thus contamination of local and regional aquifers, wetlands, and waterbodies. Soils can be divided into four Hydrologic Soil Categories based on their permeability. The list be- low was originally retrieved from the Engineering Division of the Natural Resource Conservation Service (USDA Technical Release–55) and describes the characteristics of local soils: Group A is sand, loamy sand or sandy loam. It has low runoff potential and high infil- tration rates even when thoroughly wetted. Group A consists chiefly of deep, well- to excessively drained sands or gravels and has a high rate of water transmission. Group B is silt loam or loam. It has a moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wetted and consists chiefly or moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well-drained soils with moderately fine- to moderately coarse textures. Group C soils are sandy clay loam. They have low infiltration rates when thoroughly wet- ted and consist chiefly of soils with a layer that impedes downward movement of water and soils, with moderately fine- to fine structure. Group D soils are clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, or clay. This hydric soil category has the highest runoff potential and very low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted, consisting chiefly of clay soils with a high swelling potential, soils with a per- manent high-water table, soils with a claypan or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious material (Evaluation of SWAT Model Applicability in a First-Order Agricultural Watershed in Southern Ontario: scholars.wlu.ca) Town of Lansing soil types and their hydrologic soil groups are shown in Table 9. For dual cate- gories, the first letter applies to the drained condition and the second to the undrained condi- tion. 59 Soil Type Hydrologic Soil Group % of Land in Municipality Alluvial land-Muck and Peat-Fresh Water Marsh A/D 1.12% Bath-Valois-Lansing A/B 4.30% Chippewa and Alden-Ilion-Wayland C/D 4.94% Conesus B 6.77% Darien-Erie-Chippewa C 2.78% Halsey-Mardin-Madalin C/D 0.15% Howard-Valois-Palmyra-Arkport-Chenango-Made land A 4.10% Kendaia-Lyons-Eel-Lima B/D 13.43% Langford B 3.78% Lansing-Honeoye-Genesee B 13.89% Lordstown-Tuller-Ovid-Rhinebeck A 13.81% Phelps-Hudson-Cayuga-Collamer-Dunkirk-Williamson C/D 13.77% Table 9: Soil types, hydrologic soil groups, and the percentage of land by soil type in the Town of Lansing. The percentage of silt and sand in soil contributes to its erodibility. A higher volume of silt and sand correlates to higher erosion, and thus higher possibilities of landslides. The soil types map (Map18) can help communities determine areas most suitable for development or conserva- tion. Maps and Data Soils are mapped at different levels of detail, with the two most common being general soil maps and soil surveys. General soil maps show soil associations that share a characteristic landscape and pattern. Soils within the same association may share some similar characteristics but differ in many important ones. These maps are suitable for large-area planning, such as a multi-county regional plan or a plan for large drainage basins. Data for this map come from the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Soils Division’s U.S. General Soil Map, downloaded in 2020. A summary of soil types in the Town of Lansing is included in Table 9. Soil survey maps are more detailed than general soil maps. The area of one soil type delineated on the map can be as small as a few acres. These maps are for planning at the county or munic- ipal level. Data for these maps are available from the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Soils Division. Three other maps are included in this report: • Soil drainage map (Map 19). Soil drainage, which is influenced by its texture and organic 60 matter, refers to the soil’s ability to retain water. This map is derived from the U.S. Gener- al Soil Map. • Prime agricultural soil map (Map 20). According to the USDA, prime agricultural land “is land that has the best combination of physical and chemical characteristics for pro- ducing food, feed, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops and is available for these uses.”(Prime and Important Farmland: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/ak/soils/surveys/ NRCS142P2_035988/). This designation is based on soil quality, the length of the grow- ing season, and moisture supply. Town of Lansing soils qualify as prime agriculture land, except for the Y-shape linear ridge area in the middle. Source for data: USDA gSSURGO. • Hydric soil map (Map 21), showing soils that have been flooded or saturated for a long time, such as in wetlands. They can be produced artificially or naturally. Source for data: USDA gSSURGO. Resources and References Town of Ulysses Natural Resources Inventory: www.ulysses.ny.us Cayuga Lake Watershed Preliminary Watershed Characterization: cayugawatershed.org Evaluation of SWAT Model Applicability in a First-Order Agricultural Watershed in Southern On- tario: scholars.wlu.ca Cornell Cooperative Extension, Cornell Small Farms Program, Soil Drainage, http://smallfarms. cornell.edu/plan-your-farm/accessing-evaluating-land/evaluating-land-tutorial/know-your-soils/ soil-drainage/ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Division Hydric Soils – Introduction, https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/hy- dric/?cid=nrcs142p2_053961 Official Soil Series Descriptions (OSDs), https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/ soils/survey/class/data/?cid=nrcs142p2_053587 U.S. General Soils Map, https://gdg.sc.egov.usda.gov/GDGOrder.aspx?order=QuickState U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, & Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. (1965). Soil Survey: Tompkins County, New York (1961 No. 25). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. US Department of Agriculture National Engineering Handbook Par 630 Chapter 7: https://direc- tives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17757.wba USDA Web Soil Survey: https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx 61 Map 18: Soil type classifications for the Town of Lansing. Map 19: Soil drainage classifications for the Town of Lansing. 62 Map 20: Agricultural soil quality throughout the Town of Lansing. Map 21: Location of hydric soils within the Town of Lansing. SECTION 3: LAND USE AND PROTECTED LANDS 64 LAND USE AND LAND COVER What Are Land Use and Land Cover? Land use refers to how humans use the landscape and includes categories such as residential development and agriculture. Land cover refers to the physical cover of the land, whether nat- ural or artificial. These categories range from forests and wetlands to impervious surfaces and cleared fields. Why Are Land Use and Land Cover Important? Communities can consult land use and land cover information when making decisions about proposed land uses, development suitability, and comprehensive planning. These data provide a static picture of development patterns and may be used as a benchmark for future land use and land cover analyses. Data may also be used for historical analyses when old data become avail- able in Geographic Information System (GIS) format. With climate change in mind, communities should carefully plan development and future land use to prevent unnecessary disturbance. They should consider how the land cover will change with increasing temperatures and how, as a result, land use and development will be affected. According to the USDA, native tree species, such as sugar maple, are projected to migrate north between now and 2100 (Iverson & Hargrove, n.d.) . Meanwhile, New York is expected to lose its spruce-fir forests in the Catskills and Adirondack Mountains by 2100 due to migration of tree species under climate change (Cho, 2018). The density of forests is expected to thin out over time, destabilizing the ground and increasing the potential for landslides. Between 2000 and 2050, forested areas of the Northeast are expected to decline by 7% and cropland by 6%. While it is not possible to predict exactly how the land cover will change over time, it is possible to forecast change by referring to and comparing current and historical land cover maps. Because land use and land cover can be influenced the well-being of the community and the en- vironment. Historical land cover data can be retrieved from the USDA website (https://datagate- way.nrcs.usda.gov/). The maps below are also helpful because they depict present land uses. As land is developed and agricultural uses increase, planners must understand current land cover characteristics and identify the trends. Comparing current land covers and FEMA flood maps can show how changing land cover has influenced the behavior of flooding. Overlaying soil types with land cover can help communities determine parcels that should be protected (e.g. stream corridors) versus those that can be developed with the least disturbance to floodplains and other wildlife rich landscapes. Land Use and Land Cover in Town of Lansing is presented in Map 22. The main land use type in the Town of Lansing, agriculture constitutes 34.4% of the total land area, including water bod- ies. Vegetative cover, such as forests and brush, are mostly along water bodies. Commercial and residential developments are located primarily in the southern part of the town, especially in the Village of Lansing. Mirroring this disparity in development from north to south, employment opportunities, public services, and infrastructure allocations are spread unequally in the Town. See Table 10 for detailed land use and land cover in Town of Lansing. 65 Agricultural Districts Agricultural Districts provide a framework to limit unreasonable local regulation of farm prac- tices; public agencies’ ability to acquire farmland by eminent domain; and the use of public funds to construct facilities that encourage development of farmland. Also, benefit assessments, special ad valorem levies, or other rates and fees for financing of improvements such as water, sewer, or non-farm drainage may not be imposed upon land used in agricultural production and within New York State Certified Agricultural Districts. The Town of Lansing is one of the Agricul- tural Districts in Tompkins County (NY State Department of Agriculture and Markets, 2020). Table 10. Land use and land cover by category in the Town of Lansing. Category % of Total Area, Including Water Bodies Percentage of Total Land Area Examples of Individual Classes Agriculture 34.4%39.1%Cropland, pastures Barren or Disturbed 0.5%0.6%Vegetation has been cleared but no development Commercial 0.5%0.6%Retail stores, offices Inactive Agriculture 3.6%4.0%Agricultural land not in use Industrial, Transporta- tion, and Transmission 1.6%1.8%Utilities, pipelines, highways, railroads Public/Institutional 0.3%0.3%Educational facilities, cemeteries, public works Recreation 0.6%0.7%Golf courses, ball fields, parks Residential 11.1%12.6%High, medium, and low density residen- tial Water 11.8%NA Natural lakes, ponds Wetlands 4.1%4.7%NYSDEC or national wetlands Vegetative Cover 31.4%35.6%Forests, brush Maps and Data Map 22 shows land use/land cover in Town of Lansing. Data for this map was provided by the US Department of Agriculture and was last updated in 2015. Resources and References Cho, R. (2018). How Climate Change Affects New York’s Plants and Animals. Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2017/01/06/how-climate-change-is-affecting-new- yorks-plants-and-animals/ Cornell Cooperative Extension, ulster.cce.cornell.edu/agriculture/farmland-access-protection/ agricultural-districts Cornell University Geospatial Information Repository (CUGIR), https://cugir.library.cornell.edu/ Cornell University Institute for Resource Information Systems (IRIS), http://iris.css.cornell.edu/ 66 index.html Iverson, L., & Hargrove, W. (n.d.). Tree Habitat Shifts - Species Distribution Models. Retrieved March 3, 2020, from https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/species-distribution-models NY State Department of Agriculture and Markets (2020). Agricultural District Profile. Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://agriculture.ny.gov/system/files/documents/2020/01/agdistrict- profile.pdf Map 22: Town of Lansing land use classifications. 67 NATURAL HERITAGE SITES What Is a Natural Heritage Site? A Natural Heritage Site is a point or area representing specific natural resource information documented by the New York Natural Heritage Program. The goal of this program, a joint ven- ture of the NYSDEC and The Nature Conservancy (TNC) since 1985, is to compile and maintain an up-to-date inventory of the location and status of New York State’s rarest animal and plant species and its ecological communities. As of 2017, the Natural Heritage Program monitors the status of 802 rare plant species, 466 rare animal species, and 179 ecological community types in New York State. Why Are Natural Heritage Sites Important? Community members and planners can access the databases maintained by the New York Natu- ral Heritage Program to identify threatened or endangered species and ecological communities in Town of Lansing. They can incorporate this information into planning and natural resources management to help conserve the plants, animals, and ecological communities that represent the County’s natural heritage. Though not a requirement of the State Environmental Quality Review Act (SEQRA), the Natural Heritage Program will search its databases upon request for proposed actions subject to SEQRA review. Natural Heritage Sites in the Town of Lansing For information concerning the data, or to request site specific information, contact the New York Natural Heritage Program. Information on the status and distribution of rare and endan- gered animals and plants, and the best examples of New York State’s ecological communities, is collected, stored, and analyzed in databases maintained by the Natural Heritage Program. This information has been assembled from historical records and collections maintained by scientific institutions, such as the New York State Museum, and from field surveys by staff from the New York Natural Heritage Program and other scientific groups. Neither site-specific nor comprehensive surveys for rare species and significant natural com- munities have been conducted for the entire state. Therefore, this information cannot be relied on as a definitive statement of the presence or absence of rare species or significant ecological communities, and cannot be substituted for on-site surveys that may be required for environ- mental assessment. Resources and References New York Natural Heritage Program, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry. Janu- ary, 2018. Element Occurrence Spatial Data Set. Albany, New York. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Division of Fish and Wildlife, http://www.dec.ny.gov/about/634.html Division of Marine Resources, http://www.dec.ny.gov/about/796.html List of Endangered, Threatened and Special Concern Fish & Wildlife, Species of New York State, http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7494.html New York Natural Heritage Program, http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/29338.html 68 UNIQUE NATURAL AREAS What Is a Unique Natural Area? Unique Natural Areas (UNAs) are sites with outstanding environmental qualities, as defined by the Tompkins County Environmental Management Council (EMC), that are deserving of special attention for preservation and protection. UNAs include such natural features as gorges, woods, swamps, fens, cliffs, and streams. They lie on both publicly and privately owned lands, and anyone wishing to visit a site on private land must obtain permission from the owner or owners. Unique Natural Areas are areas within Tompkins County that have been mapped and catalogued by the (EMC) for their outstanding flora, fauna, geology, or other natural features. This Invento- ry – within this Natural Resources Inventory – has its roots in the mid 1970s, when then-gradu- ate student Craig Tufts published his master’s thesis at Cornell University, entitled “A preliminary inventory of some unique natural areas in Tompkins County, New York” (1976). Tufts’ inventory was expanded by the Tompkins County Environmental Council in 1990, and again in 2000. In recent years, a team of consultants hired by the EMC has revisited the delineations of all of the boundaries of the UNAs, and refined their accuracy with the help of high-quality imagery and better technology than was previously available. Why Are Unique Natural Areas Important? Unique Natural Areas are recognized because of the outstanding qualities that render them “unique” within the town of Lansing. Often, the characteristics that make a site unique are extremely vulnerable to a wide range of both direct and indirect impacts and may be compro- mised by disturbing the site. For this reason, the UNA Inventory incorporates an array of data that can be utilized in planning efforts to help identify and mitigate potential impacts to a UNA. What Are the Criteria for a Unique Natural Area? At least one of five criteria must be met to classify an area as a UNA: 1. Important Natural Community: the site includes a state-designated wetland, a designat- ed natural area/preserve, historical botanical/zoological characteristics, important teach- ing characteristics, an old-growth forest, a plant or animal community type that is rare or scarce in the County, diverse flora or fauna, a birding site, and/or a wilderness character. 2. Quality of Example: the site is considered the best representative, for example, of an ecosystem, plant community, or animal community of high quality within the County. These sites typically contain especially large individuals, dense populations, and/or a particularly diverse mixture of species. 3. Rare or Scarce Plants or Animals: the site contains plant or animal species that have been recognized as rare or scarce at a national, state, or local level; has critical migration, reproductive, or feeding habitat for rare or scarce animal species; and/or has reports of large mammals. 4. Geological Importance: the site includes a rare or outstanding example of geological features or processes and/or a paleontological site. 5. Aesthetic/Cultural Qualities: the site contains acknowledged outstanding natural or sce- nic beauty as viewed from within or from a distance, has recreational value, is designat- ed as urban greenspace, and/or has cultural/historic/archeological significance. 69 Unique Natural Areas in the Town of Lansing Within the Town of Lansing, nearly 4,400 acres are included in designated UNAs. This acreage corresponds to approximately 10% of the Town. With the exception of areas already designated as state-regulated wetlands by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC). inclusion in the Unique Natural Areas inventory does not carry regulatory weight. Rather, the inventory serves to advise the Town Board, Planning Board, and Zoning Board of Appeals on matters related to the environment. A more detailed description of the Inventory and its uses can be found on the Town of Lansing’s website: http://www.lansingtown.com/pho- cadownload/CodesOffice/2015_Inventory_Introduction_12-31-15.pdf The UNA inventory is intentionally not provided as an online resource. This is due to concerns expressed by landowners and conservationists, alike, that publicizing these resources could too easily lead to trespassing, and potentially poaching of rare plants. Nonetheless, every municipal- ity in Tompkins County – as well as every branch of the Tompkins County Public Library – retains a full copy of the UNA inventory. The EMC feels strongly that the UNA inventory is an important tool for both planning and land- owner education. In 2001, when the last major overhaul to the Unique Natural Area Inventory was completed by the EMC, personalized letters and information packets were mailed to the approximately 2400 landowners in Tompkins County whose property included all, or part, of a UNA. Several land conservation projects and donations were explored as a result. Landowner reactions to UNA designations on property they owned were summarized in a study completed as part of a thesis project conducted by Karen Edelstein in 2001, entitled “Natural area desig- nations on private property: a pilot study of landowner attitudes about the revised Tompkins County unique natural areas inventory, 2000”. On a rolling basis, Unique Natural Areas are continually under review by the Environmental Management Council, which assesses their integrity, and whether or not boundaries have changed over time. In addition, the EMC has a protocol for adding, or delisting, sites, based on changing conditions. For example, the Salmon Creek Marl Springs (UNA-21), is currently in the process of being removed from the inventory because changes in hydrology, unfortunately due to ditch maintenance, eradicated the rare plants at the site. The ten DEC-regulated wetlands in Lansing were mapped in the 1980s. By DEC’s own admission, this mapping was coarse and inaccurate. “The science of wetlands also has matured in the past 20 years. The old perception that all wetlands are marshy and have open water has been placed in a new context. We now know that only about 14% of our wetlands fit this cattail-marsh-with-a-duck image. Most of our wetlands are shrub or forested swamps, and many lie along rivers and streams in the floodplain riparian zone. In the past, many of these critical wetlands were missed in the mapping process.” (https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/5124.html). With this in mind, the EMC has broadened and modified the boundaries of all of the UNAs that were originally included in the inventory due to their DEC status to reflect more accurately the ecological reality. There are 32 UNAs remaining within the Town. Of those, three extend into adjacent towns. Lan- sing’s UNAs are as diverse as they are beautiful. They include areas with picturesque waterfalls, luxuriant glens and gorges, steep lake cliffs, and rich expanses of forests and wetlands. 70 Table 11. Unique natural areas in the Town of Lansing. UNA Index Acres UNA name Partially out- side Lansing? UNA-001 197.15 Lansingville Swamp UNA-002 786.33 Salmon Creek Woods UNA-003 32.28 Holden-Decamp wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code LD1) UNA-004 24.21 Breed wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code WG1) UNA-005 52.18 Hemlock Creek Swamp UNA-019 87.97 Munson wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code WG5) UNA-020 321.22 Locke Creek Gulf UNA-021 13.82 Salmon Creek Road Marl Springs (in the process of being delisted) UNA-022 22.57 Davis wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code LD4) UNA-023 18.86 Lansing Station wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code LD5) UNA-024 338.3 Lake Cliffs, North of Myers Point UNA-025 55.39 Hidden Glens UNA-026 14.7 South Lansingville wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code LD6) UNA-027 203.08 South Salmon Creek Woods UNA-028 225.95 Ludlowville Woods UNA-029 27.75 Buck wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code WG9) UNA-030 20.13 Van Ostrand wetland/DEC Mapped Wetland (Code WG13) UNA-052 63.22 Benson wetland /DEC Mapped Wetland (Code WG14) UNA-053 194.15 Portland Point Quarry UNA-054 117.32 Minnegar Brook Woods UNA-055 112.44 Lower Salmon Creek UNA-063 197.01 Shurger Glen UNA-064 179.61 Lake Cliffs, South of Portland Point UNA-065 66.56 Head Corners Wetland UNA-066 49.65 Cornell Ponds #1 and DEC Mapped (Code WG21) UNA-067 529.33 Dryden-Lansing Swamp x UNA-088 843.3 Airport Ponds, Wetland x UNA-089 62.74 Lake Cliffs, McKinney's Point to Bolton Point UNA-090 15.77 Esty's Glen UNA-102 63.17 Renwick Slope x UNA-103 56.65 McKinneys Twin Glens and Lake Cliffs UNA-106 257.34 Sapsucker Woods Bird Sanctuary x UNA-195 296.52 Bell Station 71 Following are some brief descriptions about why some of these sites were nominated as Unique Natural Areas. A high percentage of the land area of these sites is in private ownership; tres- passing is expressly discouraged. Salmon Creek Woods (UNA-2)—Measuring nearly 800 acres, this is one of the largest UNAs in Tompkins County. The boundary of this UNA is nearly identical to National Audubon’s Salmon Creek Important Bird Area. The large expanse of intact, and biologically diverse, mature forest along the western slope of the Salmon Creek valley provides important habitat for a wide vari- ety of neotropical migratory songbirds. The creek is also an important fishery in the area. Locke Creek Gulf (UNA 20)—Locke Creek Gulf is somewhat inaccessible due to its steep sides, and therefore has been spared considerable development. It is geologically, as well as biological- ly, rich. It is botanically notable for spring flora and diverse tree communities, and is an excellent birding locale. Lake Cliffs, North of Myers Point (UNA 24)—As a scenic location, and also site of an oak forest more than 150 years old, the lake cliffs along Cayuga are also home to numerous rare plant spe- cies that grow on the talus slopes. The site includes outcrops of the Tully Limestone, caves, and glens. Hidden Glens (UNA 25)—Situated within the Lake Cliffs area, Hidden Glens features panoramic views of Cayuga Lake, two steep-sided glens, ice-carved amphitheaters, and waterfalls, as well as notable fossil assemblages. The site is geologically, and botanically, quite fragile. Ludlowville Woods (UNA 28)—This site includes the beloved waterfall at Ludlowville Park, a fea- ture that has cultural, historical, recreational, and geological significance. In addition, numerous steep-sided ravines flow into Salmon Creek on this UNA, and include rare and unusual plants and geological features. A DEC fishing access spot in also part of this UNA. Lower Salmon Creek (UNA 55)—This UNA includes the Salmon Creek gorge downstream of the Rt 34B bridge, as well as the much beloved Salt Point Natural Area, which is owned by the NYS DEC, but managed by the Town of Lansing. The gorge is notable for rare plants, and is a primary habitat site for resident and migratory birds. The stream delta at Salt Point is a remarkable place to view shorebirds, including several osprey pairs. The site is also historically significant as the location of the former operations of International Salt. Shurger Glen (UNA 63)—Shurger Glen is carved by Gulf Creek, and follows west to Portland Point. The Glen features the beloved Emilie Jonas Falls, and a diverse array of forest communi- ties. The soils and rock formations of the glen are quite fragile. The lower end of the gorge is a well-known fossil locality, although security at Portland Point protects the site from intruders. Lake Cliffs, McKinney’s Point to Bolton Point (UNA 89)—A forest containing trees over 150 years old, unique geological features, and rare and scarce plants, as well as exceptional views dis- tinguish this UNA in its high ranking. The site includes both hemlock and beech forests in the deep, shaded ravines, as well as oak-red cedar forests on the warm exposed slopes. 72 Esty’s Glen (UNA 90)—Old-growth forest, unique geological features that include gorges, falls and cliffs, and rare and scarce plants, as well as exceptional views distinguish this UNA in its high ranking. The site is contiguous to the lake cliffs of UNA 89. McKinney’s Twin Glens and Lake Cliffs (UNA 103)—In some respects, this site is similar geolog- ically to UNAs 89 and 90, but also includes an unusual feature of two streams the cascade in parallel waterfalls down the slope, separated in some places by only 100 feet. UNA 103 includes a slightly different set of rare and scarce plants and ecological communities and one of the most picturesque views of southern Cayuga Lake. Bell Station (UNA 195)—Once the site of a proposed nuclear power plant, the site returned to a natural state once the plans to build the plant were scuttled in the early 1970s. In part due to the outcrop of the Tully Limestone on the site, there is a magnificently diverse mature forest, and very rich diversity of spring ephemerals, some of which are not found elsewhere in Tomp- kins County. The Unique Natural Areas Inventory is a living document. While it is entirely plausible that some sites may be removed from the inventory due to natural or anthropogenic deterioration, more sites can also be added if they are brought to the attention of the EMC and its consultants. New sites may represent ecological recovery zones, or sites that were simply overlooked for geo- logical, ecological, or other reasons in previous iterations. The EMC uses a rigorous protocol to assess changes to the Inventory. Maps and Data The following map (23) shows the location of the UNAs in Tompkins County, and was last up- dated in 2017. The Town of Lansing is in the upper left-hand area of the county, on the east side of Cayuga Lake. Information available for each UNA includes the reason for selecting the site, special land use information, adjacent land use data, vulnerability of the site, vegetation cov- er types, ecological communities, rare, threatened or endangered species, geologic and water features, slope, and soils. Resources and References Tompkins County Unique Natural Areas, http://www.tompkinscountyny.gov/emc/education- al-materials 73 Map 23: Tompkins County Unique Natural Areas 2017 74 PROTECTED OPEN SPACE Why Are Preserves, Conservation Easements, Natural Areas, and State Lands Important? Nature preserves, conservation easements, natural areas, and state lands protect important landscapes from development and uses that may damage their natural features. These lands protect key plant and animal species and their habitats, protect watersheds and the quality of water in the area, and provide recreational opportunities to everyone. Most importantly, open space can act as a retention and relief zone for excess water during flood events. They also add economic value to their surrounding areas by providing areas for recreation, enhancing tourism and increasing land values. In addition, they provide important educational opportunities for teaching about botany, natural history, entomology and cultural history. Although municipal governments do not have direct control of these lands, they may be able to use them in their planning efforts to create greenways, biological corridors, and recreational trails. Map 24: Conservation easements in the Town of Lansing (from https://www.conservationeasement.us/interactive- map) The Finger Lakes Land Trust Preserves and Conservation Easements in the Town of Lansing There are three conservation easements in the Town of Lansing shown in Map 24 above which will protect an area near the lake from future development. There is an additional pending sale of 193.5 acres and an adjacent perpetual conservation easement (41.6 acres) known collectively as the Cayuga Cliffs Land and Water Protection Project, in process with the Finger Lakes Land Trust. There is also a 6+ acre wetland in the Northeast protected through the Wetlands Reserve Program in perpetuity. The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) was a voluntary program offer- ing landowners the opportunity to protect, restore, and enhance wetlands on their property ( https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/null/?cid=nrcs143_008419); however, the Wetland Reserve Program was repealed in 2014. 75 Map 25: Salmon Creek Bird Sanctuary is a 33-acre property owned by Finger Lakes Land Trust. For additional infor- mation contact info@fllt.org. Map 26: The Salmon Creek Important Bird area as designated by Audubon New York. For additional information contact jliner@audubon.org. 76 Salmon Creek Bird Sanctuary Managed by the Finger Lakes Land Trust, the Salmon Creek Bird Sanctuary (map 25) is a 33-acre preserve that is situated within a National Audubon Society-designated “Important Bird Area” (IBA) totaling 496 acres. The forest community includes cottonwood, sycamore, willow, and lo- cust which are attractive to locally scarce bird species such as Cerulean Warbler, Scarlet Tanager, Hooded Warbler, and Acadian Flycatcher. The larger Important Bird Area (map 26) encompasses a one-mile-long stretch of land on both sides of Salmon Creek in the Town of Lansing. The area is heavily wooded with a dense understory, making it a unique and important bird habitat. Home to a number of songbirds, the site is important breeding habitat for Cerulean Warblers (46 pairs in 1997), which is a state listed species of special concern. Within this Important Bird Area, land ownership is fragmented. The Finger Lakes Land Trust has purchased 3 parcels totaling 33 acres and hopes to work with other riparian landowners on future conservation efforts. Cayuga Cliffs Land and Water Protection Project This 235-acre property encompasses a significant portion of two county-designated Unique Nat- ural Areas (Lake Cliffs North of Myers Point and Hidden Glens). It also features more than 4,000 feet of lake frontage that provides a scenic backdrop to Taughannock Falls State Park. The land also hosts mature woodlands, scenic meadows, rugged gorges, and several waterfalls. Comple- tion of this project will conserve a site that is recognized for its unique ecological characteristics, its value for water quality, and its scenic attributes that are viewed by thousands of visitors to Taughannock Falls. It will also provide local residents with outstanding opportunities for outdoor education and recreation. At the time of writing, the property owners are collaborating with Finger Lakes Land Trust to designate 193.5 acres as a nature preserve, with the additional 41.6 acres to be conveyed as a perpetual conservation easement suitable for agricultural and residen- tial use. Compatible land uses will include hiking, deer hunting, and wildlife observation. Resources and References Cornell University, Cornell Botanic Gardens, Natural Areas, http://www.cornellbotanicgardens. org/our-gardens/natural-areas Finger Lakes Land Trust Find a Preserve, http://www.fllt.org/learntheland/preserves/ About the Finger Lakes Land Trust, http://www.fllt.org/about/ The Nature Conservancy, Places and Preserves, Central & Western New York, https://www.na- ture.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/newyork/places-preserves/central- western-new-york-preserves.xml New York State Department of Environmental Conservation State Forests, http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/40672.html Wildlife Management Areas, http://www.dec.ny.gov/outdoor/7768.html New York State Department of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, https://parks.ny.gov/ IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS 78 Once parcels have been identified, the following tools are meant to help municipal officials take actions they believe are necessary to prepare the community and environment for the effects of climate change. While the primary goal of this document is meant to help communities identify potential areas of interest within municipal boundaries, this section is meant to guide communi- ties toward a more sustainable future. Land Evaluation As this NRI is intended and designed for a specific municipality, it is possible to consider parcels on an individual basis. While there is no specific method for identifying parcels, having an over- view of the general process of land evaluation can be useful before proceeding. The main activities in a land evaluation are as follows: 1. Initial consultations on the objectives of the evaluation and the data and assumptions on which it is to be based; 2. Description of the kinds of land use to be considered and establishment of their require- ments; 3. Description of land mapping units and derivation of land qualities; 4. Comparison of kinds of land use with the types of land present; 5. Economic and social analysis; 6. Land suitability classification (qualitative or quantitative); and 7. Presentation of the results of the evaluation. List from A Framework for Land Evaluation, 4.2 Assuming that the economic and social analysis is conducted separately, there are many ways to conduct a land suitability analysis. This can be done using the evaluation instruction manual provided by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations: http://www.fao.org/ docrep/x5310e/x5310e00.htm#Contents Once parcels have been evaluated and selected, the following methods could be used to pre- serve or protect the parcels. 1. Transfer or Purchase of Development Rights When development rights are transferred, the development potential of a site becomes its own good that can be bought and sold by the owner and sold to an individual land owner or developer who wishes to build on another property at higher density as long as the zoning allows. A transfer of development rights for multiple parcels can also be coupled with cluster zoning ordinance. This would allow for property owners to earn back some of the value of their land that they will forego by not developing it, and will accommodate residen- tial or commercial growth without sprawling into properties with ecological or historic significance. Source: https://www.dos.ny.gov/lg/publications/Transfer_of_Development_Rights.pdf • Advantages: • Properties remain on tax rolls. • The program does not create a financial shortfall for the landowner. 79 • The municipality does not expend funds to purchase the property. • Disadvantages: • A transfer of development rights program necessitates ongoing administration and careful oversight. 2. Conservation Easements Conservation easements are used to protect wildlife, ecosystems, natural habitats, wetlands, and other valuable ecological resources while maintaining a property’s private ownership. Easements with Governmental Agencies A public organization does not need to purchase the properties to preserve them. Ease- ments are permanent, and legally binding, and prevent or strictly regulate future devel- opment that could occur on the property. If the two parties (land owner and govern- mental agency) agree upon a price for the easement, the governmental agency would then purchase these rights, thus enforcing the agreement made in the easement. Source: http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/41156.html • Advantages: • Straightforward • Future modifications that enhance quality or public use do not require the consent of a private owner. • Ultimate ownership control of property • Disadvantages: • Local government must take direct expenditure • Property is removed from tax rolls • Acquisition is likely to be subject to public debate Private Acquisition by Non-Profit Conservation Groups Non-profit conservation groups, such as land trusts, can be a vital resource for preserv- ing scenic, historic, and ecological resources. In New York State, 90 land trusts are at work preserving land throughout the state, in both rural and urban areas. Mission-based organizations often have extensive experience writing grants, and if their sole mission is acquisition and maintenance, they may be able to expedite the acquisition through sharp negotiation and legal expertise. It will be important for the municipality to be vigilant in vetting the mission of each organization to ensure that the ecological resource will be treated in a way to enhance its quality. Less than fee-simple acquisition is a more common technique used to protect natural re- sources. The acquisition of conservation easements (through purchase or donation from a willing seller) is used by land trusts and municipalities to restrict the type and amount of development permitted on a particular parcel of land. The Purchase of Development Rights on agricultural lands is an example of a conservation easement program. 80 • Advantages: • No direct acquisition expense for the municipality • No direct maintenance expense for the municipality • Disadvantages: • Private ownership • Property tax implications. Zoning: Zoning is another useful tool that can be directly used at a municipal level to control de- velopment. While much of Upstate New York is underdeveloped, that is likely to change with the increasing population and changing climate. Therefore, utilizing and updat- ing municipal zoning will not only increase resiliency but will lead to more sustainable growth within the region. • Advantages: • Property owners maintain the value of their property • Properties maintain their historic and ecological significance • Disadvantages: • Some developers may forego development due to stringent review requirements Performance Zoning: Performance zoning is an alternative to conventional zoning. While conventional zoning has static standards for designated areas, performance zoning regulates the design and location of development based on land’s suitability and geography. Once the criteria for performance are developed, a municipality can use them as a tool to guide development and protect important natural resources. At the same time, land owners and developers have greater flexibility to meet their zoning requirements. • Advantages • Utilizes existing characteristics of property and conserves energy use. • Can be customized to specific properties. • Can be controlled by the municipality to protect specific lands. • Encourages mixed-use development and variety • Does not need to be consistently modified • Disadvantages • Eliminates districts and a sense of uniformity, which can be difficult for a community to handle • Could give developer too much authority and power, which might create conflicting situations within the community Could potentially be a complex system to manage, especially for municipalities with limited resources and staff. 81 Sources: A Framework for Land Evaluation, 4.2 Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5310e/ x5310e05.htm#4.3%20kinds%20of%20land%20use%20and%20their%20requirements%20 and%20limitations New York State Division of Local governmental Services: https://www.dos.ny.gov/lg/publica- tions/Transfer_of_Development_Rights.pdf New York State Department of Environmental Conservation: http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/41156.html